// Copyright 2017 Google Inc. All Rights Reserved.
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS-IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.
//

// Author: ericv@google.com (Eric Veach)

#include "s2/s2edge_tessellator.h"

#include <cmath>
#include "s2/s2edge_distances.h"
#include "s2/s2latlng.h"
#include "s2/s2pointutil.h"

using std::vector;
// Tessellation is implemented by subdividing the edge until the estimated
// maximum error is below the given tolerance.  Estimating error is a hard
// problem, especially when the only methods available are point evaluation of
// the projection and its inverse.  (These are the only methods that
// S2::Projection provides, which makes it easier and less error-prone to
// implement new projections.)
//
// One technique that significantly increases robustness is to treat the
// geodesic and projected edges as parametric curves rather than geometric ones.
// Given a spherical edge AB and a projection p:S2->R2, let f(t) be the
// normalized arc length parametrization of AB and let g(t) be the normalized
// arc length parameterization of the projected edge p(A)p(B).  (In other words,
// f(0)=A, f(1)=B, g(0)=p(A), g(1)=p(B).)  We now define the geometric error as
// the maximum distance from the point p^-1(g(t)) to the geodesic edge AB for
// any t in [0,1], where p^-1 denotes the inverse projection.  In other words,
// the geometric error is the maximum distance from any point on the projected
// edge (mapped back onto the sphere) to the geodesic edge AB.  On the other
// hand we define the parametric error as the maximum distance between the
// points f(t) and p^-1(g(t)) for any t in [0,1], i.e. the maximum distance
// (measured on the sphere) between the geodesic and projected points at the
// same interpolation fraction t.
//
// The easiest way to estimate the parametric error is to simply evaluate both
// edges at their midpoints and measure the distance between them (the "midpoint
// method").  This is very fast and works quite well for most edges, however it
// has one major drawback: it doesn't handle points of inflection (i.e., points
// where the curvature changes sign).  For example, edges in the Mercator and
// Plate Carree projections always curve towards the equator relative to the
// corresponding geodesic edge, so in these projections there is a point of
// inflection whenever the projected edge crosses the equator.  The worst case
// occurs when the edge endpoints have different longitudes but the same
// absolute latitude, since in that case the error is non-zero but the edges
// have exactly the same midpoint (on the equator).
//
// One solution to this problem is to split the input edges at all inflection
// points (i.e., along the equator in the case of the Mercator and Plate Carree
// projections).  However for general projections these inflection points can
// occur anywhere on the sphere (e.g., consider the Transverse Mercator
// projection).  This could be addressed by adding methods to the S2Projection
// interface to split edges at inflection points but this would make it harder
// and more error-prone to implement new projections.
//
// Another problem with this approach is that the midpoint method sometimes
// underestimates the true error even when edges do not cross the equator.  For
// the Plate Carree and Mercator projections, the midpoint method can
// underestimate the error by up to 3%.
//
// Both of these problems can be solved as follows.  We assume that the error
// can be modeled as a convex combination of two worst-case functions, one
// where the error is maximized at the edge midpoint and another where the
// error is *minimized* (i.e., zero) at the edge midpoint.  For example, we
// could choose these functions as:
//
//    E1(x) = 1 - x^2
//    E2(x) = x * (1 - x^2)
//
// where for convenience we use an interpolation parameter "x" in the range
// [-1, 1] rather than the original "t" in the range [0, 1].  Note that both
// error functions must have roots at x = {-1, 1} since the error must be zero
// at the edge endpoints.  E1 is simply a parabola whose maximum value is 1
// attained at x = 0, while E2 is a cubic with an additional root at x = 0,
// and whose maximum value is 2 * sqrt(3) / 9 attained at x = 1 / sqrt(3).
//
// Next, it is convenient to scale these functions so that the both have a
// maximum value of 1.  E1 already satisfies this requirement, and we simply
// redefine E2 as
//
//   E2(x) = x * (1 - x^2) / (2 * sqrt(3) / 9)
//
// Now define x0 to be the point where these two functions intersect, i.e. the
// point in the range (-1, 1) where E1(x0) = E2(x0).  This value has the very
// convenient property that if we evaluate the actual error E(x0), then the
// maximum error on the entire interval [-1, 1] is bounded by
//
//   E(x) <= E(x0) / E1(x0)
//
// since whether the error is modeled using E1 or E2, the resulting function
// has the same maximum value (namely E(x0) / E1(x0)).  If it is modeled as
// some other convex combination of E1 and E2, the maximum value can only
// decrease.
//
// Finally, since E2 is not symmetric about the y-axis, we must also allow for
// the possibility that the error is a convex combination of E1 and -E2.  This
// can be handled by evaluating the error at E(-x0) as well, and then
// computing the final error bound as
//
//   E(x) <= max(E(x0), E(-x0)) / E1(x0) .
//
// Effectively, this method is simply evaluating the error at two points about
// 1/3 and 2/3 of the way along the edges, and then scaling the maximum of
// these two errors by a constant factor.  Intuitively, the reason this works
// is that if the two edges cross somewhere in the interior, then at least one
// of these points will be far from the crossing.
//
// The actual algorithm implemented below has some additional refinements.
// First, edges longer than 90 degrees are always subdivided; this avoids
// various unusual situations that can happen with very long edges, and there
// is really no reason to avoid adding vertices to edges that are so long.
//
// Second, the error function E1 above needs to be modified to take into
// account spherical distortions.  (It turns out that spherical distortions are
// beneficial in the case of E2, i.e. they only make its error estimates
// slightly more conservative.)  To do this, we model E1 as the maximum error
// in a Plate Carree edge of length 90 degrees or less.  This turns out to be
// an edge from 45:-90 to 45:90 (in lat:lng format).  The corresponding error
// as a function of "x" in the range [-1, 1] can be computed as the distance
// between the the the Plate Caree edge point (45, 90 * x) and the geodesic
// edge point (90 - 45 * abs(x), 90 * sgn(x)).  Using the Haversine formula,
// the corresponding function E1 (normalized to have a maximum value of 1) is:
//
//   E1(x) =
//     asin(sqrt(sin(Pi / 8 * (1 - x)) ^ 2 +
//               sin(Pi / 4 * (1 - x)) ^ 2 * cos(Pi / 4) * sin(Pi / 4 * x))) /
//     asin(sqrt((1 - 1 / sqrt(2)) / 2))
//
// Note that this function does not need to be evaluated at runtime, it
// simply affects the calculation of the value x0 where E1(x0) = E2(x0)
// and the corresponding scaling factor C = 1 / E1(x0).
//
// ------------------------------------------------------------------
//
// In the case of the Mercator and Plate Carree projections this strategy
// produces a conservative upper bound (verified using 10 million random
// edges).  Furthermore the bound is nearly tight; the scaling constant is
// C = 1.19289, whereas the maximum observed value was 1.19254.
//
// Compared to the simpler midpoint evaluation method, this strategy requires
// more function evaluations (currently twice as many, but with a smarter
// tessellation algorithm it will only be 50% more).  It also results in a
// small amount of additional tessellation (about 1.5%) compared to the
// midpoint method, but this is due almost entirely to the fact that the
// midpoint method does not yield conservative error estimates.
//
// For random edges with a tolerance of 1 meter, the expected amount of
// overtessellation is as follows:
//
//                   Midpoint Method    Cubic Method
//   Plate Carree               1.8%            3.0%
//   Mercator                  15.8%           17.4%

// The interpolation fraction at which the two edges are evaluated in order to
// measure the error between them.  (Edges are evaluated at two points measured
// this fraction from either end.)  With respect to the algorithm description
// above, this value is t0 = (1 - x0) / 2 in the range [0, 1] that corresponds
// to x0 in the range [-1, 1] chosen such that E1(x0) == E2(x0).
static constexpr double kInterpolationFraction = 0.31215691082248312;

// The following is the value of E1(x0) == E2(x0).
static constexpr double kScaleFactor = 0.83829992569888509;

S1Angle S2EdgeTessellator::kMinTolerance() {
  // This distance is less than 1 micrometer on the Earth's surface, but is
  // still much larger than the expected projection and interpolation errors.
  return S1Angle::Radians(1e-13);
}

S2EdgeTessellator::S2EdgeTessellator(const S2::Projection* projection,
                                     S1Angle tolerance)
    : proj_(*projection) {
  if (tolerance < kMinTolerance()) S2_LOG(DFATAL) << "Tolerance too small";

  // Rather than scaling the error estimate as described above, instead we scale
  // the tolerance.  See algorithm description at the top of this file.
  scaled_tolerance_ = S1ChordAngle(kScaleFactor *
                                   std::max(tolerance, kMinTolerance()));
}

S1ChordAngle S2EdgeTessellator::EstimateMaxError(
    const R2Point& pa, const S2Point& a, const R2Point& pb, const S2Point& b)
    const {
  // See the algorithm description at the top of this file.

  // We always tessellate edges longer than 90 degrees on the sphere, since the
  // approximation below is not robust enough to handle such edges.
  if (a.DotProd(b) < -1e-14) return S1ChordAngle::Infinity();

  constexpr double t1 = kInterpolationFraction;
  constexpr double t2 = 1 - kInterpolationFraction;
  S2Point mid1 = S2::Interpolate(t1, a, b);
  S2Point mid2 = S2::Interpolate(t2, a, b);
  S2Point pmid1 = proj_.Unproject(proj_.Interpolate(t1, pa, pb));
  S2Point pmid2 = proj_.Unproject(proj_.Interpolate(t2, pa, pb));
  return std::max(S1ChordAngle(mid1, pmid1), S1ChordAngle(mid2, pmid2));
}

void S2EdgeTessellator::AppendProjected(
    const S2Point& a, const S2Point& b, vector<R2Point>* vertices) const {
  R2Point pa = proj_.Project(a);
  if (vertices->empty()) {
    vertices->push_back(pa);
  } else {
    pa = proj_.WrapDestination(vertices->back(), pa);
    S2_DCHECK_EQ(vertices->back(), pa) << "Appended edges must form a chain";
  }
  R2Point pb = proj_.Project(b);
  AppendProjected(pa, a, pb, b, vertices);
}

// Given a geodesic edge AB, split the edge as necessary and append all
// projected vertices except the first to "vertices".
//
// The maximum recursion depth is (M_PI / kMinTolerance()) < 45, and the
// frame size is small so stack overflow should not be an issue.
void S2EdgeTessellator::AppendProjected(const R2Point& pa, const S2Point& a,
                                        const R2Point& pb_in, const S2Point& b,
                                        vector<R2Point>* vertices) const {
  R2Point pb = proj_.WrapDestination(pa, pb_in);
  if (EstimateMaxError(pa, a, pb, b) <= scaled_tolerance_) {
    vertices->push_back(pb);
  } else {
    S2Point mid = (a + b).Normalize();
    R2Point pmid = proj_.WrapDestination(pa, proj_.Project(mid));
    AppendProjected(pa, a, pmid, mid, vertices);
    AppendProjected(pmid, mid, pb, b, vertices);
  }
}

void S2EdgeTessellator::AppendUnprojected(
    const R2Point& pa, const R2Point& pb, vector<S2Point>* vertices) const {
  S2Point a = proj_.Unproject(pa);
  S2Point b = proj_.Unproject(pb);
  if (vertices->empty()) {
    vertices->push_back(a);
  } else {
    // Note that coordinate wrapping can create a small amount of error.  For
    // example in the edge chain "0:-175, 0:179, 0:-177", the first edge is
    // transformed into "0:-175, 0:-181" while the second is transformed into
    // "0:179, 0:183".  The two coordinate pairs for the middle vertex
    // ("0:-181" and "0:179") may not yield exactly the same S2Point.
    S2_DCHECK(S2::ApproxEquals(vertices->back(), a))
        << "Appended edges must form a chain";
  }
  AppendUnprojected(pa, a, pb, b, vertices);
}

// Like AppendProjected, but interpolates a projected edge and appends the
// corresponding points on the sphere.
void S2EdgeTessellator::AppendUnprojected(
    const R2Point& pa, const S2Point& a,
    const R2Point& pb_in, const S2Point& b, vector<S2Point>* vertices) const {
  // See notes above regarding measuring the interpolation error.
  R2Point pb = proj_.WrapDestination(pa, pb_in);
  if (EstimateMaxError(pa, a, pb, b) <= scaled_tolerance_) {
    vertices->push_back(b);
  } else {
    R2Point pmid = proj_.Interpolate(0.5, pa, pb);
    S2Point mid = proj_.Unproject(pmid);
    AppendUnprojected(pa, a, pmid, mid, vertices);
    AppendUnprojected(pmid, mid, pb, b, vertices);
  }
}