{ "People": { "Politicians and leaders": [ { "page": "Sargon_of_Akkad", "title": "Sargon of Akkad", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Sargon_of_Akkad_on_his_victory_stele.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sargon_of_Akkad_on_his_victory_stele.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad", "summary": "Sargon of Akkad, also known as Sargon the Great, was the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC. He is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire." }, { "page": "Hammurabi", "title": "Hammurabi", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi", "summary": "Hammurabi was the sixth king of the First Babylonian dynasty of the Amorite tribe, reigning from c. 1792 BC to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered Elam and the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule." }, { "page": "Hatshepsut", "title": "Hatshepsut", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Seated_Statue_of_Hatshepsut_MET_Hatshepsut2012.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Seated_Statue_of_Hatshepsut_MET_Hatshepsut2012.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsut", "summary": "Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu." }, { "page": "Ramesses_II", "title": "Ramesses II", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/RamsesIIEgypt.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/RamsesIIEgypt.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II", "summary": "Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom, itself the most powerful period of Ancient Egypt. His successors and later Egyptians called him the \"Great Ancestor\"." }, { "page": "Cyrus_the_Great", "title": "Cyrus the Great", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Illustrerad_Verldshistoria_band_I_Ill_058.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Illustrerad_Verldshistoria_band_I_Ill_058.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great", "summary": "Cyrus II of Persia commonly known as Cyrus the Great, and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire." }, { "page": "Alexander_the_Great", "title": "Alexander the Great", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great", "summary": "Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through western Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders." }, { "page": "Ashoka", "title": "Ashoka", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Ashoka's_visit_to_the_Ramagrama_stupa_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_gateway.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ashoka's_visit_to_the_Ramagrama_stupa_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_gateway.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka", "summary": "Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. The grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka promoted the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Considered by many to be one of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire to reign over a realm stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra, with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain." }, { "page": "Qin_Shi_Huang", "title": "Qin Shi Huang", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Qinshihuang.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Qinshihuang.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang", "summary": "Qin Shi Huang was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. From 247 to 221 BC he was Zheng, King of Qin. He became China's first emperor when he was 38 after the Qin had conquered all of the other Warring States and unified all of China in 221 BC. Rather than maintain the title of \"king\" borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor (始皇帝) of the Qin dynasty from 221 BC to 210 BC. His self-invented title \"emperor\" would continue to be borne by Chinese rulers for the next two millennia." }, { "page": "Julius_Caesar", "title": "Julius Caesar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar", "summary": "Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire." }, { "page": "Augustus", "title": "Augustus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Statue-Augustus.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus", "summary": "Caesar Augustus was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. His status as the founder of the Roman Principate has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the \"Year of the Four Emperors\" over the imperial succession." }, { "page": "Charlemagne", "title": "Charlemagne", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne", "summary": "Charlemagne or Charles the Great, numbered Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, the King of the Lombards from 774, and the Emperor of the Romans from 800. During the Early Middle Ages, he united the majority of western and central Europe. He was the first recognised emperor to rule from western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire around three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state that Charlemagne founded is called the Carolingian Empire. He was later canonised by Antipope Paschal III." }, { "page": "Genghis_Khan", "title": "Genghis Khan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan", "summary": "Genghis Khan, also officially Genghis Huangdi, was the founder and first Great Khan and Emperor of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed Genghis Khan, he launched the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia, reaching as far west as Poland and the Levant in the Middle East. Campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the Qara Khitai, Khwarezmia, and the Western Xia and Jin dynasties, and raids into Medieval Georgia, the Kievan Rus', and Volga Bulgaria. These campaigns were often accompanied by large-scale massacres of the civilian populations, especially in the Khwarazmian- and Western Xia–controlled lands. Because of this brutality, which left millions dead, he is considered by many to have been a brutal ruler. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China. Due to his exceptional military successes, Genghis Khan is often considered to be the greatest conqueror of all time." }, { "page": "Joan_of_Arc", "title": "Joan of Arc", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_of_Arc", "summary": "Joan of Arc, nicknamed \"The Maid of Orléans\", is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War, and was canonized as a Catholic saint. She was born to Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée, a peasant family, at Domrémy in the Vosges of northeast France. Joan claimed to have received visions of the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The as-yet-unanointed King Charles VII sent Joan to the Siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's consecration at Reims. This long-awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory at Castillon in 1453." }, { "page": "Suleiman_the_Magnificent", "title": "Suleiman the Magnificent", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/EmperorSuleiman.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent", "summary": "Suleiman I, commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Suleiman the Lawgiver in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman caliphate ruled over at least 25 million people." }, { "page": "Elizabeth_I", "title": "Elizabeth I", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Darnley_stage_3.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Darnley_stage_3.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I", "summary": "Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death on 24 March 1603. Sometimes called the Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the last of the five monarchs of the House of Tudor." }, { "page": "Catherine_the_Great", "title": "Catherine the Great", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Catherine_II_by_J.B.Lampi_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Catherine_II_by_J.B.Lampi_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great", "summary": "Catherine II, most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796—the country's longest-ruling female leader. She came to power following a coup d'état that overthrew her husband and second cousin, Peter III. Under her reign, Russian culture was revitalised. Russia grew larger and probably stronger, and though the significance of Russia as the great power in Europe had been undermined by the same pro-Prussian policy of Peter III and Catherine II with the loss of the major part of Poland and Ukraine, of Holstein-Gottorp and of the status of an arbiter in Germany Russia was recognized as one of the great powers worldwide, because it intervened into the affairs of America, Africa, India." }, { "page": "George_Washington", "title": "George Washington", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington", "summary": "George Washington was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and founding father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Previously, he led Patriot forces to victory in the nation's War for Independence. He presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the U.S. Constitution\nand a federal government. Washington has been called the \"Father of His Country\" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the new nation." }, { "page": "Napoleon", "title": "Napoleon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Grandes_Armes_Imp%C3%A9riales_%281804-1815%292.svg/477px-Grandes_Armes_Imp%C3%A9riales_%281804-1815%292.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/477px-Grandes_Armes_Imp%C3%A9riales_%281804-1815%292.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon", "summary": "Napoleon Bonaparte, born Napoleone di Buonaparte, byname \"Le Corse\" or \"Le Petit Caporal\", was a French statesman and military leader who became notorious as an artillery commander during the French Revolution. He led many successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars and was Emperor of the French as Napoleon I from 1804 until 1814 and again briefly in 1815 during the Hundred Days. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions during the Napoleonic Wars. He won many of these wars and a vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over much of continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. Napoleon is regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history, and his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. His political and cultural legacy has made him one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in human history." }, { "page": "Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar", "title": "Simón Bolívar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar_Signature.svg/252px-Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar_Signature.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/252px-Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar_Signature.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar", "summary": "Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte-Andrade y Blanco, generally known as Simón Bolívar and also colloquially as El Libertador, or the Liberator, was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama to independence from the Spanish Empire." }, { "page": "Abraham_Lincoln", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln", "summary": "Abraham Lincoln was an American statesman and lawyer who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 to 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War, the country's greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. He succeeded in preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy." }, { "page": "Mahatma_Gandhi", "title": "Mahatma Gandhi", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Mahatma-Gandhi%2C_studio%2C_1931.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mahatma-Gandhi%2C_studio%2C_1931.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi", "summary": "Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist, who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence from British rule, and in turn inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahātmā, first applied to him in 1914 in South Africa, is now used throughout the world. His contributions to the formation of Modern India also gave him the title – \"Father of the Nation\"." }, { "page": "Vladimir_Lenin", "title": "Vladimir Lenin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-71043-0003%2C_Wladimir_Iljitsch_Lenin.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-71043-0003%2C_Wladimir_Iljitsch_Lenin.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin", "summary": "Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by his alias Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia, and later the wider Soviet Union, became a one-party Marxist–Leninist state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Ideologically a communist, he developed a variant of Marxism known as Leninism." }, { "page": "Winston_Churchill", "title": "Winston Churchill", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill", "summary": "Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill, was a British statesman, army officer, and writer. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945, when he led the country to victory in the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, Churchill was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an economic liberal and imperialist, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, as leader from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924." }, { "page": "Joseph_Stalin", "title": "Joseph Stalin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Stalin_Full_Image.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Stalin_Full_Image.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin", "summary": "Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was a Georgian revolutionary and Soviet politician who ruled the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. He served as the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952) and premier of the Soviet Union (1941–1953). Despite initially governing the Soviet Union as part of a collective leadership, he eventually consolidated power to become the country's de facto dictator by the 1930s. A communist ideologically committed to the Leninist interpretation of Marxism, Stalin formalised these ideas as Marxism–Leninism, while his own policies are known as Stalinism." }, { "page": "Adolf_Hitler", "title": "Adolf Hitler", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Hitler_portrait_crop.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hitler_portrait_crop.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler", "summary": "Adolf Hitler was a German politician and leader of the Nazi Party. He rose to power as the chancellor of Germany in 1933 and then as Führer in 1934. During his dictatorship from 1933 to 1945, he initiated World War II in Europe by invading Poland on 1 September 1939. He was closely involved in military operations throughout the war and was central to the perpetration of the Holocaust." }, { "page": "Mao_Zedong", "title": "Mao Zedong", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Mao_Zedong_in_1959_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mao_Zedong_in_1959_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong", "summary": "Mao Zedong, also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC), which he ruled as the chairman of the Communist Party of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. Ideologically a Marxist–Leninist, his theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism." }, { "page": "Nelson_Mandela", "title": "Nelson Mandela", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Nelson_Mandela_1994.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nelson_Mandela_1994.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Mandela", "summary": "Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997." } ], "Religious figures": [ { "page": "Abraham", "title": "Abraham", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Rembrandt_Abraham_Serving_the_Three_Angels.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rembrandt_Abraham_Serving_the_Three_Angels.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham", "summary": "Abraham is the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the covenant of the pieces, the special relationship between the Hebrews and God; in Christianity, he is the prototype of all believers, Jewish or Gentile; and in Islam he is seen as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad." }, { "page": "Moses", "title": "Moses", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Philippe_de_Champaigne_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_WGA04717.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philippe_de_Champaigne_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_WGA04717.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses", "summary": "Moses, also known as Moshe Rabbenu, is the most important prophet in Judaism, and an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, and a number of other Abrahamic religions. In the biblical narrative he was the leader of the Israelites and lawgiver, to whom the authorship of the first five books of the bible, the Torah, or \"acquisition of the Torah from heaven,\" is attributed." }, { "page": "Laozi", "title": "Laozi", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi", "summary": "Lao Tzu, also rendered as Laozi and Lao-Tze, was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He is the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching, the founder of philosophical Taoism, and a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions." }, { "page": "Gautama_Buddha", "title": "Gautama Buddha", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha", "summary": "The Buddha was a philosopher, mendicant, meditator, spiritual teacher, and religious leader who lived in Ancient India. He is revered as the founder of the world religion of Buddhism, and worshiped by most Buddhist schools as the Enlightened One who has transcended Karma and escaped the cycle of birth and rebirth. He taught for around 45 years and built a large following, both monastic and lay. His teaching is based on his insight into duḥkha and the end of dukkha – the state called Nibbāna or Nirvana." }, { "page": "Jesus", "title": "Jesus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Cefal%C3%B9_Pantocrator_retouched.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cefal%C3%B9_Pantocrator_retouched.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus", "summary": "Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the central figure of Christianity, the world's largest religion. Most Christians believe he is the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament." }, { "page": "Paul_the_Apostle", "title": "Paul the Apostle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/The_Predication_of_Saint_Paul_LACMA_M.2000.179.24.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Predication_of_Saint_Paul_LACMA_M.2000.179.24.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle", "summary": "Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul and also known by his Hebrew name Saul of Tarsus, was an apostle who taught the gospel of Christ to the first-century world. Paul is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age and from the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD he founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe." }, { "page": "Muhammad", "title": "Muhammad", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Dark_vignette_Al-Masjid_AL-Nabawi_Door800x600x300.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dark_vignette_Al-Masjid_AL-Nabawi_Door800x600x300.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad", "summary": "Muhammad was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, sent to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though some modern denominations diverge from this belief. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief." }, { "page": "Adi_Shankara", "title": "Adi Shankara", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Shankara", "summary": "Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism." }, { "page": "Martin_Luther", "title": "Martin Luther", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther", "summary": "Martin Luther, was a German professor of theology, priest, author, composer, Augustinian monk, and a seminal figure in the Reformation. Luther was ordained to the priesthood in 1507. He came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church; in particular, he disputed the view on indulgences. Luther proposed an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His refusal to renounce all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor." } ], "Explorers": [ { "page": "Marco_Polo", "title": "Marco Polo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Marco_Polo_-_costume_tartare.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Marco_Polo_-_costume_tartare.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo", "summary": "Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant, explorer, and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in The Travels of Marco Polo, a book that described to Europeans the then mysterious culture and inner workings of the Eastern world, including the wealth and great size of the Mongol Empire and China in the Yuan Dynasty, giving their first comprehensive look into China, Persia, India, Japan and other Asian cities and countries." }, { "page": "Ibn_Battuta", "title": "Ibn Battuta", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Handmade_oil_painting_reproduction_of_Ibn_Battuta_in_Egypt%2C_a_painting_by_Hippolyte_Leon_Benett..jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Handmade_oil_painting_reproduction_of_Ibn_Battuta_in_Egypt%2C_a_painting_by_Hippolyte_Leon_Benett..jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta", "summary": "Ibn Battuta was a Muslim Berber Moroccan scholar and explorer who widely travelled the medieval world. Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of the Islamic world and many non-Muslim lands, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, India and China. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling. He travelled more than any other explorer in distance, totaling around 117,000 km, surpassing Zheng He with about 50,000 km and Marco Polo with 12,000 km." }, { "page": "Zheng_He", "title": "Zheng He", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Zheng_He.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Zheng_He.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He", "summary": "Zheng He was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty. He was originally born as Ma He in a Muslim family and later adopted the surname Zheng conferred by Emperor Yongle. Zheng commanded expeditionary treasure voyages to Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. According to legend, his larger ships carried hundreds of sailors on four decks and were almost twice as long as any wooden ship ever recorded." }, { "page": "Christopher_Columbus", "title": "Christopher Columbus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Portrait_of_a_Man%2C_Said_to_be_Christopher_Columbus.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Portrait_of_a_Man%2C_Said_to_be_Christopher_Columbus.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus", "summary": "Christopher Columbus was an explorer and navigator who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for European exploration and colonization of the Americas. His expeditions, sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, were the first European contact with the Caribbean, Central America, and South America." }, { "page": "Vasco_da_Gama", "title": "Vasco da Gama", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Lisboa-Museu_Nacional_de_Arte_Antiga-Retrato_dito_de_Vasco_da_Gama-20140917.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lisboa-Museu_Nacional_de_Arte_Antiga-Retrato_dito_de_Vasco_da_Gama-20140917.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama", "summary": "Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira, was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea." }, { "page": "Ferdinand_Magellan", "title": "Ferdinand Magellan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan", "summary": "Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who organised the Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the Earth, which was completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano." }, { "page": "James_Cook", "title": "James Cook", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook", "summary": "Captain James Cook was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand." }, { "page": "Roald_Amundsen", "title": "Roald Amundsen", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Amundsen_in_fur_skins.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Amundsen_in_fur_skins.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Amundsen", "summary": "Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions and a key figure of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. He led the first expedition to traverse the Northwest Passage by sea, from 1903 to 1906, and the first expedition to the South Pole in 1911. He led the first expedition proven to have reached the North Pole in a dirigible in 1926. He disappeared while taking part in a rescue mission for the airship Italia in 1928." } ], "Philosophers and social scientists": [ { "page": "Confucius", "title": "Confucius", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Kongzi_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/203px-Kongzi_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/203px-Kongzi_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius", "summary": "Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period." }, { "page": "Herodotus", "title": "Herodotus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus", "summary": "Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire. He is known for having written the book The Histories, a detailed record of his \"inquiry\" on the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars. He is widely considered to have been the first writer to have treated historical subjects using a method of systematic investigation—specifically, by collecting his materials and then critically arranging them into an historiographic narrative. On account of this, he is often referred to as \"The Father of History,\" a title first conferred on him by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero." }, { "page": "Socrates", "title": "Socrates", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Socrates_Louvre.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates", "summary": "Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of thought.\nAn enigmatic figure, he authored no texts, and is known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers composing after his lifetime, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. Other sources include the contemporaneous Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos. Aristophanes, a playwright, is the main contemporary author to have written plays mentioning Socrates during Socrates' lifetime, though a fragment of Ion of Chios' Travel Journal provides important information about Socrates' youth." }, { "page": "Plato", "title": "Plato", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato", "summary": "Plato was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world." }, { "page": "Aristotle", "title": "Aristotle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle", "summary": "Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion." }, { "page": "Avicenna", "title": "Avicenna", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna", "summary": "Ibn Sina, also known as Abu Ali Sina, Pur Sina (پورسینا), and often known in the West as Avicenna, was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age, and the father of early modern medicine. Sajjad H. Rizvi has called Avicenna \"arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era\". He was a Muslim Peripatetic philosopher influenced by Aristotelian philosophy. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine." }, { "page": "Thomas_Aquinas", "title": "Thomas Aquinas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas", "summary": "Thomas Aquinas was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. An immensely influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, he is also known within the latter as the Doctor Angelicus and the Doctor Communis. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio, Italy. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism; of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory." }, { "page": "Ibn_Khaldun", "title": "Ibn Khaldun", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun", "summary": "Ibn Khaldun was an Arab scholar of Islam, social scientist and historian who has been described as the father of the modern disciplines of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography. Niccolò Machiavelli of the Renaissance and the 19th-century European scholars widely acknowledged the significance of his works and considered Ibn Khaldun to be one of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages." }, { "page": "Ren%C3%A9_Descartes", "title": "René Descartes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes", "summary": "\nRené Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. A native of the Kingdom of France, he spent about 20 years (1629–1649) of his life in the Dutch Republic after serving for a while in the Dutch States Army of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange and the Stadtholder of the United Provinces. One of the most notable intellectual figures of the Dutch Golden Age, Descartes is also widely regarded as one of the founders of modern philosophy." }, { "page": "John_Locke", "title": "John Locke", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/John_Locke.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke", "summary": "John Locke was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the \"Father of Liberalism\". Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, Locke is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American Revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence." }, { "page": "Adam_Smith", "title": "Adam Smith", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith", "summary": "Adam Smith was a British economist, philosopher, and author born in Scotland, as well as a moral philosopher, a pioneer of political economy, and a key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment, also known as ''The Father of Economics'' or ''The Father of Capitalism''. Smith wrote two classic works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, often abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. In his work, Adam Smith introduced his theory of absolute advantage." }, { "page": "Immanuel_Kant", "title": "Immanuel Kant", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Kant_gemaelde_3.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kant_gemaelde_3.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant", "summary": "Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy." }, { "page": "Mary_Wollstonecraft", "title": "Mary Wollstonecraft", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft", "summary": "Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional personal relationships at the time, received more attention than her writing. Today Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and her works as important influences." }, { "page": "Karl_Marx", "title": "Karl Marx", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Karl_Marx_001.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx", "summary": "Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary. Born in Trier, Germany, Marx studied law and philosophy at university. He married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Due to his political publications, Marx became stateless and lived in exile with his wife and children in London for decades, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and publish his writings, researching in the reading room of the British Museum. His best-known titles are the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto and the three-volume Das Kapital (1867–1883). Marx's political and philosophical thought had enormous influence on subsequent intellectual, economic and political history. His name has been used as an adjective, a noun and a school of social theory." }, { "page": "Friedrich_Nietzsche", "title": "Friedrich Nietzsche", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nietzsche187a.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche", "summary": "Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a German philosopher, cultural critic, composer, poet, and philologist whose work has exerted a profound influence on modern intellectual history. He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest person ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869 at the age of 24. Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life; he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and afterward a complete loss of his mental faculties. He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897 and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche. Nietzsche died in 1900." }, { "page": "Sigmund_Freud", "title": "Sigmund Freud", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud", "summary": "Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst." } ], "Writers": [ { "page": "Homer", "title": "Homer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Homer_British_Museum.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Homer_British_Museum.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer", "summary": "Homer is the presumed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems that are the central works of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary." }, { "page": "Sappho", "title": "Sappho", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Head_Sappho_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Head_Sappho_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho", "summary": "Sappho was an Archaic Greek poet from the island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by a lyre. In ancient times, Sappho was widely regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets and was given names such as the \"Tenth Muse\" and \"The Poetess\". Most of Sappho's poetry is now lost, and what is extant has mostly survived in fragmentary form; two notable exceptions are the \"Ode to Aphrodite\" and the Tithonus poem. As well as lyric poetry, ancient commentators claimed that Sappho wrote elegiac and iambic poetry. Three epigrams attributed to Sappho are extant, but these are actually Hellenistic imitations of Sappho's style." }, { "page": "Sophocles", "title": "Sophocles", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Sophocles_pushkin.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sophocles_pushkin.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophocles", "summary": "Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than, or contemporary with, those of Aeschylus; and earlier than, or contemporary with, those of Euripides. Sophocles wrote over 120 plays, but only seven have survived in a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus. For almost fifty years, Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens which took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in thirty competitions, won twenty-four, and was never judged lower than second place. Aeschylus won thirteen competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles; Euripides won four." }, { "page": "Virgil", "title": "Virgil", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Virgil_.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Virgil_.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil", "summary": "Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He wrote three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues, the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. A number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, are sometimes attributed to him as well." }, { "page": "Li_Bai", "title": "Li Bai", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/LiBai.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/LiBai.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Bai", "summary": "Li Bai, also known as Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai, art name Qinglian Jushi, was a Chinese poet acclaimed from his own day to the present as a genius and a romantic figure who took traditional poetic forms to new heights. He and his friend Du Fu (712–770) were the two most prominent figures in the flourishing of Chinese poetry in the Tang dynasty, which is often called the \"Golden Age of Chinese Poetry\". The expression \"Three Wonders\" denote Li Bai's poetry, Pei Min's swordplay, and Zhang Xu's calligraphy." }, { "page": "Abu_Nuwas", "title": "Abu Nuwas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Abu_Nuwas.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Abu_Nuwas.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Nuwas", "summary": "Abū Nuwās al-Ḥasan ibn Hānī al-Ḥakamī was a classical Arabic poet. Born in the city of Ahvaz, in modern-day Iran, to an Arab father and a Persian mother, he became a master of all the contemporary genres of Arabic poetry. He also entered the folkloric tradition, appearing several times in One Thousand and One Nights. He died during the Great Abbasid Civil War before al-Ma’mūn advanced from Khurāsān in either 199 or 200 AH." }, { "page": "Murasaki_Shikibu", "title": "Murasaki Shikibu", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Portrait_of_Murasaki_Shikibu.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Portrait_of_Murasaki_Shikibu.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murasaki_Shikibu", "summary": "Murasaki Shikibu was a Japanese novelist, poet and lady-in-waiting at the Imperial court during the Heian period. She is best known as the author of The Tale of Genji, widely considered to be the world's first novel, written in Japanese between about 1000 and 1012. Murasaki Shikibu is a descriptive name; her personal name is unknown, but she may have been Fujiwara no Takako , who was mentioned in a 1007 court diary as an imperial lady-in-waiting." }, { "page": "Dante_Alighieri", "title": "Dante Alighieri", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Portrait_de_Dante.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Portrait_de_Dante.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri", "summary": "Dante Alighieri, probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to simply as Dante, was an Italian poet. His Divine Comedy, originally called Comedìa and later christened Divina by Giovanni Boccaccio, is widely considered the most important poem of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language." }, { "page": "Miguel_de_Cervantes", "title": "Miguel de Cervantes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Cervantes_J%C3%A1uregui.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cervantes_J%C3%A1uregui.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes", "summary": "Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was a Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in the Spanish language, and one of the world's pre-eminent novelists. He is best known for his novel Don Quixote, a work often cited as both the first modern novel, and one of the pinnacles of literature." }, { "page": "William_Shakespeare", "title": "William Shakespeare", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Shakespeare.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Shakespeare.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare", "summary": "William Shakespeare was an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's greatest dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the \"Bard of Avon\". His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. They also continue to be studied and reinterpreted." }, { "page": "Voltaire", "title": "Voltaire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire", "summary": "François-Marie Arouet, known by his nom de plume Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his criticism of Christianity—especially the Roman Catholic Church—as well as his advocacy of freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state." }, { "page": "Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe", "title": "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe", "summary": "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. His works include: four novels; epic and lyric poetry; prose and verse dramas; memoirs; an autobiography; literary and aesthetic criticism; and treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters, and nearly 3,000 drawings by him have survived. He is considered the greatest German literary figure of the modern era." }, { "page": "Jane_Austen", "title": "Jane Austen", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/CassandraAusten-JaneAusten%28c.1810%29_hires.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CassandraAusten-JaneAusten%28c.1810%29_hires.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen", "summary": "Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. Her use of biting irony, along with her realism, humour, and social commentary, have long earned her acclaim among critics, scholars, and popular audiences alike." }, { "page": "Charles_Dickens", "title": "Charles Dickens", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Dickens_Gurney_head.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dickens_Gurney_head.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens", "summary": "Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised Dickens as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are still widely read today." }, { "page": "Fyodor_Dostoevsky", "title": "Fyodor Dostoevsky", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Vasily_Perov_-_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A4.%D0%9C.%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vasily_Perov_-_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A4.%D0%9C.%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky", "summary": "Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, was a Russian novelist, philosopher, short story writer, essayist, and journalist. Dostoevsky's literary works explore human psychology in the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmospheres of 19th-century Russia, and engage with a variety of philosophical and religious themes. His most acclaimed works include Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). Dostoevsky's body of works consists of 12 novels, four novellas, 16 short stories, and numerous other works. Many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest psychological novelists in world literature. His 1864 novel Notes from Underground is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature." }, { "page": "Leo_Tolstoy", "title": "Leo Tolstoy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/L._N._Tolstoy%2C_by_Prokudin-Gorsky_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/L._N._Tolstoy%2C_by_Prokudin-Gorsky_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy", "summary": "Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. He received multiple nominations for the Nobel Prize in Literature every year from 1902 to 1906 and nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901, 1902, and 1910, and that he never won is a major controversy." }, { "page": "Mark_Twain", "title": "Mark Twain", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Mark_Twain_by_AF_Bradley.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mark_Twain_by_AF_Bradley.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain", "summary": "Samuel Langhorne Clemens, known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was lauded as the \"greatest humorist [the United States] has produced\", and William Faulkner called him \"the father of American literature\". His novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its sequel, the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), the latter often called \"The Great American Novel\"." }, { "page": "Rabindranath_Tagore", "title": "Rabindranath Tagore", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore", "summary": "Rabindranath Tagore, sobriquets Gurudev, was a Bengali polymath- poet, writer, composer, philosopher and painter. He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Author of the \"profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse\" of Gitanjali, he became in 1913 the first non-European as well as the first lyricist to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Tagore's poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial; however, his \"elegant prose and magical poetry\" remain largely unknown outside Bengal. He is sometimes referred to as \"the Bard of Bengal\"." }, { "page": "James_Joyce", "title": "James Joyce", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce", "summary": "James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was an Irish novelist, short story writer, poet, teacher, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark work in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, most famously stream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, his published letters and occasional journalism." }, { "page": "Franz_Kafka", "title": "Franz Kafka", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Kafka.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kafka.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Kafka", "summary": "Franz Kafka was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic. It typically features isolated protagonists facing bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible socio-bureaucratic powers. It has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity. His best known works include \"Die Verwandlung\", Der Process, and Das Schloss. The term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those found in his writing." } ], "Composers and musicians": [ { "page": "Johann_Sebastian_Bach", "title": "Johann Sebastian Bach", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach", "summary": "Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. He is known for instrumental compositions such as the Brandenburg Concertos and the Goldberg Variations, and for vocal music such as the St Matthew Passion and the Mass in B minor. Since the 19th-century Bach Revival he has been generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time." }, { "page": "Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart", "title": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Croce-Mozart-Detail.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart", "summary": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period." }, { "page": "Ludwig_van_Beethoven", "title": "Ludwig van Beethoven", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Beethoven.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven", "summary": "Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist whose music ranks amongst the most performed of the classical music repertoire; he remains one of the most admired composers in the history of Western music. His works span the transition from the classical period to the romantic era in classical music. His career has conventionally been divided into early, middle, and late periods. The \"early\" period, during which he forged his craft, is typically considered to have lasted until 1802. His \"middle\" period, sometimes characterized as \"heroic\", showed an individual development from the \"classical\" styles of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, typically covers the years 1802 to 1812, during which he increasingly suffered from deafness. In the \"late\" period from 1812 to his death in 1827, he extended his innovations in musical form and expression." }, { "page": "Richard_Wagner", "title": "Richard Wagner", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/RichardWagner.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/RichardWagner.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner", "summary": "Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works. Initially establishing his reputation as a composer of works in the romantic vein of Carl Maria von Weber and Giacomo Meyerbeer, Wagner revolutionised opera through his concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk, by which he sought to synthesise the poetic, visual, musical and dramatic arts, with music subsidiary to drama. He described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen." }, { "page": "Louis_Armstrong", "title": "Louis Armstrong", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Louis_Armstrong_restored.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Louis_Armstrong_restored.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong", "summary": "Louis Daniel Armstrong, nicknamed \"Satchmo\", \"Satch\", and \"Pops\", was an American trumpeter, composer, vocalist, and actor who was among the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, and different eras in the history of jazz. In 2017, he was inducted into the Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame." }, { "page": "Elvis_Presley", "title": "Elvis Presley", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Elvis_Presley_promoting_Jailhouse_Rock.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Elvis_Presley_promoting_Jailhouse_Rock.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley", "summary": "Elvis Aaron Presley, also known simply as Elvis, was an American singer, musician and actor. He is regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century and is often referred to as the \"King of Rock and Roll\" or simply \"the King\". His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines during a transformative era in race relations, led him to great success—and initial controversy." }, { "page": "The_Beatles", "title": "The Beatles", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/The_Fabs.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Fabs.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles", "summary": "The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. The group, whose best-known line-up comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, are regarded as the most influential band of all time. They were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form. Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways; the band later explored music styles ranging from ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionised many aspects of the music industry and were often publicised as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements." } ], "Inventors and scientists": [ { "page": "Hippocrates", "title": "Hippocrates", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Hippocrates.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hippocrates.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates", "summary": "Hippocrates of Kos, also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is often referred to as the \"Father of Medicine\" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized Ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated, thus establishing medicine as a profession." }, { "page": "Jabir_ibn_Hayyan", "title": "Jabir ibn Hayyan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan", "summary": "Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān, was a polymath of Persian origin and is the supposed author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic often called the Jabirian corpus. The scope of the corpus is vast and diverse covering a wide range of topics, including alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism and philosophy." }, { "page": "Shen_Kuo", "title": "Shen Kuo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Beijing_Ancient_Observatory_20090715-19_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Beijing_Ancient_Observatory_20090715-19_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Kuo", "summary": "Shen Kuo or Shen Gua, courtesy name Cunzhong (存中) and pseudonym Mengqi Weng (夢溪翁), was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Excelling in many fields of study and statecraft, he was a mathematician, astronomer, meteorologist, geologist, entomologist, anatomist, climatologist, zoologist, botanist, pharmacologist, medical scientist, agronomist, archaeologist, ethnographer, cartographer, geographer, geophysicist, mineralogist, encyclopedist, military general, diplomat, hydraulic engineer, inventor, economist, academy chancellor, finance minister, governmental state inspector, philosopher, art critic, poet, and musician. He was the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy in the Song court, as well as an Assistant Minister of Imperial Hospitality. At court his political allegiance was to the Reformist faction known as the New Policies Group, headed by Chancellor Wang Anshi (1021–1085)." }, { "page": "Johannes_Gutenberg", "title": "Johannes Gutenberg", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Gutenberg.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gutenberg.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg", "summary": "Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was a German goldsmith, inventor, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the introduction of mechanical movable type printing press. His work started the Printing Revolution and is regarded as a milestone of the second millennium, ushering in the modern period of human history. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Enlightenment, and Scientific Revolution, as well as laying the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses." }, { "page": "Nicolaus_Copernicus", "title": "Nicolaus Copernicus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus", "summary": "Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance-era mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic clergyman who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at the center of the universe, in all likelihood independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated such a model some eighteen centuries earlier." }, { "page": "Galileo_Galilei", "title": "Galileo Galilei", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei", "summary": "Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath, from Pisa. Galileo has been called the \"father of observational astronomy\", the \"father of modern physics\", the \"father of the scientific method\", and the \"father of modern science\"." }, { "page": "Isaac_Newton", "title": "Isaac Newton", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Sir_Isaac_Newton_%281643-1727%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sir_Isaac_Newton_%281643-1727%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton", "summary": "Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus." }, { "page": "Benjamin_Franklin", "title": "Benjamin Franklin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin", "summary": "Benjamin Franklin was an American polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a leading writer, printer, political philosopher, politician, Freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, humorist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among other inventions. He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department, and the University of Pennsylvania." }, { "page": "Carl_Linnaeus", "title": "Carl Linnaeus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif/lossy-page1-3032px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/lossy-page1-3032px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus", "summary": "Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the \"father of modern taxonomy\". Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus." }, { "page": "Antoine_Lavoisier", "title": "Antoine Lavoisier", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier", "summary": "Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the \"father of modern chemistry\"." }, { "page": "Michael_Faraday", "title": "Michael Faraday", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday", "summary": "Michael Faraday was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis." }, { "page": "Charles_Darwin", "title": "Charles Darwin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin", "summary": "Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey." }, { "page": "Louis_Pasteur", "title": "Louis Pasteur", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Louis_Pasteur%2C_foto_av_Paul_Nadar%2C_Crisco_edit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Louis_Pasteur%2C_foto_av_Paul_Nadar%2C_Crisco_edit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur", "summary": "Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his discoveries have saved many lives ever since. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever and created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax." }, { "page": "James_Clerk_Maxwell", "title": "James Clerk Maxwell", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/James_Clerk_Maxwell.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/James_Clerk_Maxwell.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell", "summary": "James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics. His most notable achievement was to formulate the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, bringing together for the first time electricity, magnetism, and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism have been called the \"second great unification in physics\" after the first one realised by Isaac Newton." }, { "page": "Dmitri_Mendeleev", "title": "Dmitri Mendeleev", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/DIMendeleevCab.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/DIMendeleevCab.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev", "summary": "Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is best remembered for formulating the Periodic Law and creating a farsighted version of the periodic table of elements. He used the Periodic Law not only to correct the then-accepted properties of some known elements, such as the valence and atomic weight of uranium, but also to predict the properties of eight elements that were yet to be discovered." }, { "page": "Thomas_Edison", "title": "Thomas Edison", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Thomas_Edison2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thomas_Edison2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison", "summary": "Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman who has been described as America's greatest inventor. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory." }, { "page": "Nikola_Tesla", "title": "Nikola Tesla", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/N.Tesla.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/N.Tesla.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla", "summary": "Nikola Tesla was a Serbian-American inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer, and futurist best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system." }, { "page": "Marie_Curie", "title": "Marie Curie", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie", "summary": "Marie Skłodowska Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity." }, { "page": "Albert_Einstein", "title": "Albert Einstein", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein", "summary": "Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He is best known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory." }, { "page": "Niels_Bohr", "title": "Niels Bohr", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Niels_Bohr.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr", "summary": "Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research." } ], "Mathematicians": [ { "page": "Archimedes", "title": "Archimedes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes", "summary": "Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Considered to be the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems, including: the area of a circle; the surface area and volume of a sphere; area of an ellipse; the area under a parabola; the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution; the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution; and the area of a spiral." }, { "page": "Euclid", "title": "Euclid", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Scuola_di_atene_23.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Scuola_di_atene_23.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid", "summary": "Euclid, sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the \"founder of geometry\" or the \"father of geometry\". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I. His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the Elements, Euclid deduced the theorems of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour." }, { "page": "Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi", "title": "Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Khwarizmi_Amirkabir_University_of_Technology.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Khwarizmi_Amirkabir_University_of_Technology.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi", "summary": "Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, Arabized as al-Khwarizmi and formerly Latinized as Algorithmi, was a Persian polymath who produced vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography. Around 820 CE he was appointed as the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad." }, { "page": "Leonhard_Euler", "title": "Leonhard Euler", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Leonhard_Euler.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler", "summary": "Leonhard Euler was a Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, geographer, logician and engineer who made important and influential discoveries in many branches of mathematics, such as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making pioneering contributions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy and music theory." }, { "page": "Pierre-Simon_Laplace", "title": "Pierre-Simon Laplace", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace", "summary": "Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was a French scholar and polymath whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste (1799–1825). This work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace." }, { "page": "Carl_Friedrich_Gauss", "title": "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss", "summary": "Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science. Sometimes referred to as the Princeps mathematicorum and \"the greatest mathematician since antiquity\", Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science, and is ranked among history's most influential mathematicians." }, { "page": "Emmy_Noether", "title": "Emmy Noether", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Noether.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Noether.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether", "summary": "Amalie Emmy Noether was a German mathematician who made many important contributions to abstract algebra. She has also a famous theorem in mathematical physics known as Noether's theorem. She invariably used the name \"Emmy Noether\" in her life and publications. She was described by Pavel Alexandrov, Albert Einstein, Jean Dieudonné, Hermann Weyl and Norbert Wiener as the most important woman in the history of mathematics. As one of the leading mathematicians of her time, she developed the theories of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the connection between symmetry and conservation laws." }, { "page": "Kurt_G%C3%B6del", "title": "Kurt Gödel", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/42/Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del", "summary": "Kurt Friedrich Gödel was a logician, mathematician, and analytic philosopher. Considered along with Aristotle and Gottlob Frege to be one of the most significant logicians in history, Gödel had an immense effect upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when others such as Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and David Hilbert were analyzing the use of logic and set theory to understand the foundations of mathematics pioneered by Georg Cantor." }, { "page": "Alan_Turing", "title": "Alan Turing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Alan_Turing_Aged_16.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Alan_Turing_Aged_16.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing", "summary": "Alan Mathison Turing was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised in his home country during his lifetime due to the prevalence of homophobia at the time and because much of his work was covered by the Official Secrets Act." } ], "Artists": [ { "page": "Leonardo_da_Vinci", "title": "Leonardo da Vinci", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Francesco_Melzi_-_Portrait_of_Leonardo.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Francesco_Melzi_-_Portrait_of_Leonardo.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci", "summary": "Leonardo da Vinci was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. The Mona Lisa is the most famous of his works and the most famous portrait ever made. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. He is also known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on science and invention; these involve a variety of subjects including anatomy, cartography, painting, and palaeontology. Leonardo's collective works compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary Michelangelo." }, { "page": "Michelangelo", "title": "Michelangelo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Michelangelo_Daniele_da_Volterra_%28dettaglio%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Michelangelo_Daniele_da_Volterra_%28dettaglio%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo", "summary": "Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, known best as simply Michelangelo, was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet of the High Renaissance born in the Republic of Florence, who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. His artistic versatility was of such a high order that he is often considered a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man, along with his rival, the fellow Florentine, Leonardo da Vinci. Several scholars have described Michelangelo as the greatest artist of his age and even as the greatest artist of all time." }, { "page": "Rembrandt", "title": "Rembrandt", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt", "summary": "Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history. Unlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, and biblical and mythological themes as well as animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age, when Dutch art, although in many ways antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was extremely prolific and innovative and gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as Jan Vermeer of Delft, Rembrandt was also an avid art collector and dealer." }, { "page": "Hokusai", "title": "Hokusai", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Hokusai_portrait.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hokusai_portrait.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokusai", "summary": "Katsushika Hokusai , known simply as Hokusai, was a Japanese artist, ukiyo-e painter and printmaker of the Edo period. Born in Edo, Hokusai is best known as author of the woodblock print series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji which includes the internationally iconic print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa." }, { "page": "Claude_Monet", "title": "Claude Monet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Claude_Monet_1899_Nadar_crop.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Claude_Monet_1899_Nadar_crop.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Monet", "summary": "Oscar-Claude Monet was a French painter, a founder of French Impressionist painting and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein air landscape painting. The term \"Impressionism\" is derived from the title of his painting Impression, soleil levant, which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris." }, { "page": "Vincent_van_Gogh", "title": "Vincent van Gogh", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project_%28454045%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project_%28454045%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh", "summary": "Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch post-impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade, he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of which date from the last two years of his life. They include landscapes, still lifes, portraits and self-portraits, and are characterised by bold colours and dramatic, impulsive and expressive brushwork that contributed to the foundations of modern art. He was not commercially successful, and his suicide at 37 came after years of mental illness, depression and poverty." }, { "page": "Pablo_Picasso", "title": "Pablo Picasso", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Portrait_de_Picasso%2C_1908.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Portrait_de_Picasso%2C_1908.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso", "summary": "Pablo Picasso, born Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist and theatre designer who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a dramatic portrayal of the bombing of Guernica by German and Italian air forces during the Spanish Civil War." }, { "page": "Frida_Kahlo", "title": "Frida Kahlo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Frida_Kahlo%2C_by_Guillermo_Kahlo.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Frida_Kahlo%2C_by_Guillermo_Kahlo.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frida_Kahlo", "summary": "Frida Kahlo was a Mexican painter known for her many portraits, self-portraits, and works inspired by the nature and artifacts of Mexico. Inspired by the country's popular culture, she employed a naïve folk art style to explore questions of identity, postcolonialism, gender, class, and race in Mexican society. Her paintings often had strong autobiographical elements and mixed realism with fantasy. In addition to belonging to the post-revolutionary Mexicayotl movement, which sought to define a Mexican identity, Kahlo has been described as a surrealist or magical realist." } ], "Filmmakers": [ { "page": "Charlie_Chaplin", "title": "Charlie Chaplin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Charlie_Chaplin_portrait.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Charlie_Chaplin_portrait.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin", "summary": "Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, \"The Tramp\", and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy." }, { "page": "Walt_Disney", "title": "Walt Disney", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Walt_Disney_1946.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Walt_Disney_1946.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney", "summary": "Walter Elias Disney was an American entrepreneur, animator, writer, voice actor and film producer. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons. As a film producer, Disney holds the record for most Academy Awards earned by an individual, having won 22 Oscars from 59 nominations. He was presented with two Golden Globe Special Achievement Awards and an Emmy Award, among other honors. Several of his films are included in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress." } ], "Businesspeople": [ { "page": "Henry_Ford", "title": "Henry Ford", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Henry_ford_1919.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Henry_ford_1919.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford", "summary": "Henry Ford was an American industrialist and business magnate, founder of the Ford Motor Company, and chief developer of the assembly line technique of mass production. By creating the first automobile that middle-class Americans could afford, he converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into an accessible conveyance that profoundly impacted the landscape of the 20th century." } ] }, "History": { "General": [ { "page": "History", "title": "History", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Herodotus_Massimo_Inv124478.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Herodotus_Massimo_Inv124478.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History", "summary": "History is the study of the past. Events occurring before the invention of writing systems are considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Historians place the past in context using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, ecological markers, and material objects including art and artifacts." }, { "page": "Human_history", "title": "Human history", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/World_population_growth_%28lin-log_scale%29.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/World_population_growth_%28lin-log_scale%29.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_history", "summary": "Human history, also known as world history, is the description of humanity's past. It is informed by archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics, and other disciplines; and, for periods since the invention of writing, by recorded history and by secondary sources and studies." }, { "page": "Civilization", "title": "Civilization", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization", "summary": "A civilization is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government and symbolic systems of communication such as writing." }, { "page": "Archaeology", "title": "Archaeology", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology", "summary": "Archaeology, sometimes spelled archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. Archaeology is often considered a branch of socio-cultural anthropology, but archaeologists also draw from biological, geological, and environmental systems through their study of the past. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In Europe it is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines, while in North America archaeology is a sub-field of anthropology." } ], "History by region": [ { "page": "History_of_Africa", "title": "History of Africa", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg/1390px-African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1390px-African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Africa", "summary": "The history of Africa begins with the emergence of hominids, archaic humans and—at least 200,000 years ago—anatomically modern humans, in East Africa, and continues unbroken into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.The earliest known recorded history arose in Ancient Egypt, and later in Nubia, the Sahel, the Maghreb and the Horn of Africa." }, { "page": "History_of_Asia", "title": "History of Asia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Map_of_Asia.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Map_of_Asia.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asia", "summary": "The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe." }, { "page": "History_of_East_Asia", "title": "History of East Asia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Map_of_East_Asia.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Map_of_East_Asia.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_East_Asia", "summary": "The History of East Asia encompasses the histories of China, Japan and Korea from prehistoric times to the present. East Asia is not uniform and each of its countries has a different national history, but scholars maintain that the region is also characterized by a distinct pattern of historical development. This is evident in the interrelationship among East Asian countries, which not only involve the sum total of historical patterns but also a specific set of patterns that has affected all or most of East Asia in successive layers." }, { "page": "History_of_India", "title": "History of India", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India", "summary": "According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. However, the earliest known human remains in India date to 30,000 years ago. Settled life, which involves the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in Greater India around 7,000 BCE. At the site of Mehrgarh, presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats, sheep, and cattle. By 4,500 BCE, settled life had spread more widely, and began to gradually evolve into the Indus Valley Civilization, an early civilization of the Old world, which was contemporaneous with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This civilization flourished between 2,500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what today is Pakistan and north-western India and was noted for its urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage, and water supply." }, { "page": "History_of_the_Middle_East", "title": "History of the Middle East", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Map_of_Middle_East.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Map_of_Middle_East.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East", "summary": "Home to the Cradle of Civilization, the Middle East—interchangeable with the Near East—has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. This history started from the earliest human settlements, continuing through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires through to the nation-states of the Middle East today." }, { "page": "History_of_Europe", "title": "History of Europe", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europe", "summary": "The history of Europe concerns itself with the discovery and collection, the study, organization and presentation and the interpretation of past events and affairs of the people of Europe since the beginning of written records. During the Neolithic era and the time of the Indo-European migrations, Europe saw human inflows from east and southeast and subsequent important cultural and material exchange. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main European powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The Cold War dominated European geo-politics from 1947 to 1989. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, the European countries grew together." }, { "page": "History_of_North_America", "title": "History of North America", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/North_America_satellite_orthographic.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/North_America_satellite_orthographic.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_North_America", "summary": "History of North America encompasses the past developments of people populating the continent of North America. While it was widely believed that continent first became a human habitat when people migrated across the Bering Sea 40,000 to 17,000 years ago, recent discoveries may have pushed those estimates back at least another 90,000 years. People settled throughout the continent, from the Inuit of the far north to the Mayans and Aztecs of the south. These complex communities each developed their own unique ways of life and cultures." }, { "page": "History_of_Oceania", "title": "History of Oceania", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Oceania", "summary": "The History of Oceania includes the history of Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Fiji and other Pacific island nations." }, { "page": "History_of_South_America", "title": "History of South America", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Karta_sydamerika_1892.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Karta_sydamerika_1892.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_America", "summary": "The history of South America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent of South America. The continent continues to be home to indigenous peoples, some of whom built high civilizations prior to the arrival of Europeans in the late 1400s and early 1500s. South America has a history that has a wide range of human cultures and forms of civilization. The Norte Chico civilization in Peru is the oldest civilization in the Americas and one of the first six independent civilizations in the world; it was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia." } ], "History by subject": [ { "page": "History_of_art", "title": "History of art", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Creaci%C3%B3n_de_Ad%C3%A1n.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Creaci%C3%B3n_de_Ad%C3%A1n.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_art", "summary": "The history of art focuses on objects made by humans in visual form for aesthetic purposes. Visual art can be classified in diverse ways, such as separating fine arts from applied arts; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media such as architecture, sculpture, painting, film, photography, and graphic arts. In recent years, technological advances have led to video art, computer art, performance art, animation, television, and videogames." }, { "page": "History_of_science", "title": "History of science", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science", "summary": "The history of science is the study of the development of science, including both the natural and social sciences. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real-world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science." }, { "page": "History_of_agriculture", "title": "History of agriculture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture", "summary": "The history of agriculture records the domestication of plants and animals and the development and dissemination of techniques for raising them productively. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin." }, { "page": "History_of_architecture", "title": "History of architecture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Akropolis_by_Leo_von_Klenze.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Akropolis_by_Leo_von_Klenze.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_architecture", "summary": "The history of architecture traces the changes in architecture through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The branches of architecture are civil, sacred, naval, military, and landscape architecture." }, { "page": "History_of_film", "title": "History of film", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/Cin%C3%A9matographe_Lumi%C3%A8re.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cin%C3%A9matographe_Lumi%C3%A8re.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_film", "summary": "Although the start of the history of film as an artistic medium is not clearly defined, the commercial, public screening of ten of Lumière brothers' short films in Paris on 28 December 1895 can be regarded as the breakthrough of projected cinematographic motion pictures. There had been earlier cinematographic results and screenings by others, but they lacked either the quality, financial backing, stamina or the luck to find the momentum that propelled the cinématographe Lumière into a worldwide success." }, { "page": "History_of_literature", "title": "History of literature", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_literature", "summary": "The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry that attempt to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/listener/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings constitute literature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above." }, { "page": "History_of_mathematics", "title": "History of mathematics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Euclid-proof.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Euclid-proof.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics", "summary": "The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of discoveries in mathematics and, to a lesser extent, an investigation into the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, together with Ancient Egypt and Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and also in the patterns in nature, the field of astronomy and to record time/formulate calendars." }, { "page": "History_of_medicine", "title": "History of medicine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/HippocraticOath.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/HippocraticOath.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine", "summary": "The history of medicine shows how societies have changed in their approach to illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt and India. Sushruta, from India, introduced the concepts of medical diagnosis and prognosis. The Hippocratic Oath was written in ancient Greece in the 5th century BCE, and is a direct inspiration for oaths of office that physicians swear upon entry into the profession today. In the Middle Ages, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in Rogerius's The Practice of Surgery. Universities began systematic training of physicians around 1220 CE in Italy." }, { "page": "History_of_music", "title": "History of music", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music", "summary": "Music is found in every known society, past and present, and is considered to be a cultural universal. Since all people of the world, including the most isolated tribal groups, have a form of music, it may be concluded that music is likely to have been present in the ancestral population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world. Consequently, the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life, using various different materials to make various instruments." }, { "page": "History_of_technology", "title": "History of technology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ur_chariot.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology", "summary": "The history of technology is the history of the invention of tools and techniques and is one of the categories of world history. Technology can refer to methods ranging from as simple as stone tools to the complex genetic engineering and information technology that has emerged since the 1980s. The term technology comes from the Greek word techne, meaning art and craft, and the word logos, meaning word and speech. It was first used to describe applied arts, but it is now used to described advancements and changes which affect the environment around us." }, { "page": "Military_history", "title": "Military history", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Bronze_statue_of_dancing_warrior_480_bC_lower_italy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bronze_statue_of_dancing_warrior_480_bC_lower_italy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history", "summary": "Military history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships." } ], "Prehistory": [ { "page": "Prehistory", "title": "Prehistory", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory", "summary": "Human prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period between the use of the first stone tools by hominins c. 3.3 million years ago and the invention of writing systems. The use of symbols, marks, and images appears very early among humans, but the earliest known writing systems appeared c. 5,300 years ago and it took thousands of years for writing systems to be widely adopted. In some human cultures, writing systems were not used until the nineteenth century and, in a few, not even until the present. The end of prehistory therefore came at very different dates in different places, and the term is less often used in discussing societies where prehistory ended relatively recently." }, { "page": "Stone_Age", "title": "Stone Age", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Ggantija_Temples%2C_Xaghra%2C_Gozo.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ggantija_Temples%2C_Xaghra%2C_Gozo.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age", "summary": "\nThe Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE, with the advent of metalworking. Though some simple metalworking of malleable metals, particularly the use of gold and copper for purposes of ornamentation, was known in the Stone Age, it is the melting and smelting of copper that marks the end of the Stone Age. In western Asia this occurred by about 3000 BCE, when bronze became widespread. The term Bronze Age is used to describe the period that followed the Stone Age, as well as to describe cultures that had developed techniques and technologies for working copper into tools, supplanting stone in many uses." }, { "page": "Early_human_migrations", "title": "Early human migrations", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Putative_migration_waves_out_of_Africa.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Putative_migration_waves_out_of_Africa.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_human_migrations", "summary": "Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents and are believed to have begun approximately 2 million years ago with the early expansions of hominins out of Africa of Homo erectus. This initial migration was followed by other archaic humans including H. heidelbergensis, which lived around 500,000 years ago and was the likely ancestor of both Denisovans and Neanderthals. Early hominids were said to have \"crossed land bridges that were eventually covered in water\"." }, { "page": "Neolithic_Revolution", "title": "Neolithic Revolution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Fertile_crescent_Neolithic_B_circa_7500_BC.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Fertile_crescent_Neolithic_B_circa_7500_BC.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution", "summary": "The Neolithic Revolution, or (First) Agricultural Revolution, was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly large population possible. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants." } ], "Ancient history": [ { "page": "Ancient_history", "title": "Ancient history", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history", "summary": "Ancient history as a term refers to the aggregate of past events from the beginning of writing and recorded human history and extending as far as post-classical history. The phrase may be used either to refer to the period of time or the academic discipline." }, { "page": "Bronze_Age", "title": "Bronze Age", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Harappan_face_%28Indus_Valley%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Harappan_face_%28Indus_Valley%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age", "summary": "The Bronze Age is a historical period that was characterized by the use of bronze, in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, for classifying and studying ancient societies." }, { "page": "Ancient_Egypt", "title": "Ancient Egypt", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt", "summary": "Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the country Egypt. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes. The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age." }, { "page": "Indus_Valley_Civilisation", "title": "Indus Valley Civilisation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation", "summary": "The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Together with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilisations of the Near East and South Asia, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area stretching from northeast Afghanistan, through much of Pakistan, and into western and northwestern India. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan." }, { "page": "Mesopotamia", "title": "Mesopotamia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg/3281px-N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/3281px-N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia", "summary": "Mesopotamia is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders." }, { "page": "Sumer", "title": "Sumer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Near_East_non_political.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer", "summary": "Sumer is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, emerging during the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. It is also one of the first civilizations in the world, along with Ancient Egypt, Norte Chico, Minoan civilization, Ancient China, Mesoamerica and the Indus Valley. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus from which enabled them to form urban settlements. Prehistoric proto-writing dates back before 3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr, and date to between c. 3500 and c. 3000 BC." }, { "page": "Assyria", "title": "Assyria", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria", "summary": "Assyria, also called the Assyrian Empire, was a Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant that existed as a state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC until its collapse between 612 BC and 609 BC – spanning the periods of the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age. This vast span of time is divided into the Early Period, Old Assyrian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire and Neo-Assyrian Empire." }, { "page": "Iron_Age", "title": "Iron Age", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age", "summary": "The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. The concept has been mostly applied to Europe and the Ancient Near East, and, by analogy, also to other parts of the Old World." }, { "page": "Ancient_Greece", "title": "Ancient Greece", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece", "summary": "Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. This era was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of Classical Greece, from the Greco-Persian Wars to the 5th to 4th centuries BC. The conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon spread Hellenistic civilization from the western Mediterranean to Central Asia. The Hellenistic period ended with the conquest of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, and the annexation of the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire." }, { "page": "Ancient_Rome", "title": "Ancient Rome", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome", "summary": "In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire until the fall of the western empire.\nThe civilisation began as an Italic settlement in the Italian Peninsula, traditionally dated to 753 BC, that grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled and to the widespread civilisation the empire developed. The civilization was led and ruled by the Romans, alternately considered an ethnic group or a nationality. The Roman Empire expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, still ruled from the city, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants and covering 5 million square kilometres at its height in AD 117." }, { "page": "Achaemenid_Empire", "title": "Achaemenid Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28White%29.svg/470px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28White%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/470px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28White%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire", "summary": "The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great. Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, it was larger than any previous empire in history, spanning 5.5 million square kilometers. It is notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration, for its multicultural policy, for building infrastructure such as road systems and a postal system, the use of an official language across its territories, and the development of civil services and a large professional army. The empire's successes inspired similar systems in later empires." }, { "page": "Gupta_Empire", "title": "Gupta Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/South_Asia_historical_AD375_EN.svg/1300px-South_Asia_historical_AD375_EN.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1300px-South_Asia_historical_AD375_EN.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire", "summary": "The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to 543 CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians. The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II alias Vikramaditya. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others." }, { "page": "Han_dynasty", "title": "Han dynasty", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Han_Dynasty_map_2CE.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Han_Dynasty_map_2CE.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty", "summary": "The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, established by the rebel leader Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. Preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention, it was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and was separated into two periods — the Western Han and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD), before being succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and influenced the identity of the Chinese civilization ever since. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the \"Han Chinese\", the Sinitic language is known as \"Han language\", and the written Chinese is referred to as \"Han characters\"." }, { "page": "Silk_Road", "title": "Silk Road", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/SeidenstrasseGMT.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/SeidenstrasseGMT.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road", "summary": "The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century. The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe." }, { "page": "Pre-Columbian_era", "title": "Pre-Columbian era", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era", "summary": "The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continent, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period." }, { "page": "Andean_civilizations", "title": "Andean civilizations", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andean_civilizations", "summary": "The Andean civilizations were complex societies of many cultures and peoples mainly developed in the river valleys of the coastal deserts of Peru. They stretched from the Andes of Ecuador southward down the Andes to northern Argentina and Chile. Archaeologists believe that Andean civilizations first developed on the narrow coastal plain of the Pacific Ocean. The Caral or Norte Chico civilization of Peru is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, dating back to 3200 BCE." }, { "page": "Mesoamerica", "title": "Mesoamerica", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Mesoamerica_english.PNG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mesoamerica_english.PNG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica", "summary": "Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in North America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. Within this region pre-Columbian societies flourished for more than 1000 years before the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Mesoamerica was the site of two of the most profound historical transformations in world history: primary urban generation, and the formation of New World cultures out of the long encounters among Indigenous, European, African and Asian cultures." }, { "page": "Maya_civilization", "title": "Maya civilization", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization", "summary": "The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization developed by the Maya peoples, and noted for its logosyllabic script—the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system in pre-Columbian Americas—as well as for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system. The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. This region consists of the northern lowlands encompassing the Yucatán Peninsula, and the highlands of the Sierra Madre, running from the Mexican state of Chiapas, across southern Guatemala and onwards into El Salvador, and the southern lowlands of the Pacific littoral plain. The overarching term \"Maya\" is a modern collective term that refers to the peoples of the region, however, the term was not used by the indigenous populations themselves since there never was a common sense of identity or political unity among the distinct populations. Today, the Maya peoples number well over 6 million people, speaking over twenty-eight surviving Mayan languages and residing in nearly the same area as their ancestors." } ], "Post-classical history": [ { "page": "Post-classical_history", "title": "Post-classical history", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Jingangjing.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-classical_history", "summary": "Post-classical history is a periodization commonly used by the school of ‘world history’ instead of Middle or Medieval Ages, which is roughly synonymous. The period runs from about 500 CE to 1500 CE, though there may be regional differences and debates. The era was globally characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically and development of networks of trade between civilizations." }, { "page": "Aztecs", "title": "Aztecs", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Aztec_Empire.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Aztec_Empire.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztecs", "summary": "The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec peoples included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427: Tenochtitlan, city-state of the Mexica or Tenochca; Texcoco; and Tlacopan, previously part of the Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was Azcapotzalco. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to Nahua polities or peoples of central Mexico in the prehispanic era, as well as the Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early nineteenth century." }, { "page": "Inca_Empire", "title": "Inca Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Tawantinsuyu_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/549px-Tawantinsuyu_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/549px-Tawantinsuyu_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Empire", "summary": "The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in the city of Cusco. The Inca civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572." }, { "page": "Islamic_Golden_Age", "title": "Islamic Golden Age", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Islamic_Golden_Age_montage.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Islamic_Golden_Age_montage.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age", "summary": "The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, the world's largest city by then, where Islamic scholars and polymaths from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into Arabic and Persian. Several historic inventions and significant contributions in numerous fields were made throughout the Islamic middle ages that revolutionized human history." }, { "page": "Middle_Ages", "title": "Middle Ages", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages", "summary": "In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the late 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages." }, { "page": "Black_Death", "title": "Black Death", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/992px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/992px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death", "summary": "The Black Death was the deadliest pandemic recorded in human history. The Black Death resulted in the deaths of up to 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. Plague, the disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, was the cause; The Y. pestis infection most commonly results in bubonic plague, but can also cause septicaemic or pneumonic plagues." }, { "page": "Byzantine_Empire", "title": "Byzantine Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Justinian555AD.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire", "summary": "The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople. It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. \"Byzantine Empire\" is a term created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire simply as the Roman Empire, or Romania, and to themselves as Romans. \nSeveral signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West diverged. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I, Christianity became the state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. In the reign of Heraclius, the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use in place of Latin." }, { "page": "Crusades", "title": "Crusades", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Combat_deuxi%C3%A8me_croisade.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Combat_deuxi%C3%A8me_croisade.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades", "summary": "The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church during the medieval period in the Eastern Mediterranean with the objective of recovering the Holy Land from Islamic rule. The difference between these campaigns and many other Christian religious conflicts was that they were considered a penitential exercise that brought forgiveness of sins declared by the church. Historians contest the definition of the term \"crusade\". Some restrict it to only armed pilgrimages to Jerusalem; others include all Catholic military campaigns with a promise of spiritual benefit; all Catholic holy wars; or those with a characteristic of religious fervour." }, { "page": "Holy_Roman_Empire", "title": "Holy Roman Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/900px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire", "summary": "The Holy Roman Empire, later referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in Western and Central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. The largest territory of the empire after 962 was the Kingdom of Germany, though it also included the neighboring Kingdom of Bohemia and Kingdom of Italy, plus numerous other territories, and soon after the Kingdom of Burgundy was added. However, while by the 15th century the Empire was still in theory composed of three major blocks – Italy, Germany, and Burgundy – in practice, the links between these blocks had become so unsubstantial that only the Kingdom of Germany remained, nearly all the Italian territories for instance having become in effect part of a narrowly-defined Habsburg dynastic patrimony, unconnected to the Empire. The external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia – which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace – to the dissolution of the Empire. By then, it largely contained only German-speaking territories, plus the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, most of the Holy Roman Empire was included in the German Confederation." }, { "page": "Viking_Age", "title": "Viking Age", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bildsten_fr%C3%A5n_Smiss%2C_Gotland.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age", "summary": "The Viking Age was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonizing, conquest and trading throughout Europe, and reached North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Germanic Iron Age. The Viking Age applies not only to their homeland of Scandinavia, but to any place significantly settled by Scandinavians during the period. The Scandinavians of the Viking Age are often referred to as Vikings as well as Norsemen, although few of them were Vikings in the technical sense." }, { "page": "Mongol_Empire", "title": "Mongol Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Mongol_Empire_map_2.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mongol_Empire_map_2.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire", "summary": "The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, extending northward into parts of the Arctic; eastward and southward into the Indian subcontinent, Mainland Southeast Asia and the Iranian Plateau; and westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains." }, { "page": "Ottoman_Empire", "title": "Ottoman Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/1200px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire", "summary": "The Ottoman Empire was a state that controlled much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. Although initially the dynasty was of Turkic origin, it was Persianised in terms of language, culture, literature and habits. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror." }, { "page": "Tang_dynasty", "title": "Tang dynasty", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Tang_Dynasty_circa_700_CE.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tang_Dynasty_circa_700_CE.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty", "summary": "The Tang dynasty or Tang Empire was an imperial dynasty ruling China from 618 to 907, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Historians generally regard the Tang as a high point in Chinese civilization, and a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Tang territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, rivaled that of the Han dynasty." } ], "Modern history": [ { "page": "Early_modern_period", "title": "Early modern period", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period", "summary": "The early modern period of modern history follows the late Middle Ages of the post-classical era. Although the chronological limits of the period are open to debate, the timeframe spans the period after the late portion of the post-classical age, known as the Middle Ages, through the beginning of the Age of Revolutions and is variously demarcated by historians as beginning with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Renaissance period in Europe and Timurid Central Asia, the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, and the end of the Reconquista and the Age of Discovery and ending around the French Revolution in 1789." }, { "page": "Renaissance", "title": "Renaissance", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance", "summary": "The Renaissance was a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It occurred after the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages and was associated with great social change. In addition to the standard periodization, proponents of a long Renaissance put its beginning in the 14th century and its end in the 17th century. The traditional view focuses more on the early modern aspects of the Renaissance and argues that it was a break from the past, but many historians today focus more on its medieval aspects and argue that it was an extension of the Middle Ages." }, { "page": "Age_of_Discovery", "title": "Age of Discovery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery", "summary": "The Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration, is an informal and loosely defined term for the period in European history in which extensive overseas exploration, led by the Portuguese, emerged as a powerful factor in European culture, most notably the European rediscovery of the Americas. It also marks an increased adoption of colonialism as a national policy in Europe. Several lands previously unknown to Europeans were discovered by them during this period, though most were already inhabited." }, { "page": "European_colonization_of_the_Americas", "title": "European colonization of the Americas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/550px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/550px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas", "summary": "The European colonization of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by most of the naval powers of Western Europe." }, { "page": "Reformation", "title": "Reformation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation", "summary": "The Reformation was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in particular to papal authority, arising from what were perceived to be errors, abuses, and discrepancies by the Catholic Church. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of Protestantism from the Roman Catholic Church." }, { "page": "Mughal_Empire", "title": "Mughal Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/51/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire", "summary": "The Mughal Empire, or Mogul Empire, self-designated as Gurkani, was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. For some two centuries, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan plateau in south India." }, { "page": "Scientific_Revolution", "title": "Scientific Revolution", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolution", "summary": "The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. The Scientific Revolution took place in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are debated, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is often cited as marking the beginning of the Scientific Revolution." }, { "page": "Age_of_Enlightenment", "title": "Age of Enlightenment", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/ANICET-CHARLES-GABRIEL_LEMONNIER_A_READING_OF_VOLTAIRE.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/ANICET-CHARLES-GABRIEL_LEMONNIER_A_READING_OF_VOLTAIRE.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment", "summary": "The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries." }, { "page": "Late_modern_period", "title": "Late modern period", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_modern_period", "summary": "In many periodizations of human history, the late modern period followed the early modern period. It began approximately in the mid-18th century and depending on the author either ended with the beginning of contemporary history after World War II, or includes that period up to the present day. Notable historical milestones included the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Great Divergence, and the Russian Revolution. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world's population to reach 1 billion; the next billion came just over a century later, in 1927." }, { "page": "Industrial_Revolution", "title": "Industrial Revolution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution", "summary": "The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth." }, { "page": "French_Revolution", "title": "French Revolution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution", "summary": "The French Revolution began in May 1789 when the Ancien Régime was abolished in favour of a constitutional monarchy. Its replacement in September 1792 by the First French Republic led to the Execution of Louis XVI in January 1793, and an extended period of political turmoil. This culminated in the appointment of Napoleon as First Consul in November 1799, which is generally taken as its end point. Many of its principles are now considered the basis of modern Liberal democracy." }, { "page": "Abolitionism", "title": "Abolitionism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionism", "summary": "Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, was the movement to end slavery. This term can be used both formally and informally. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and set slaves free." }, { "page": "Scramble_for_Africa", "title": "Scramble for Africa", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa", "summary": "The Scramble for Africa, also called the Partition of Africa or the Conquest of Africa, was the invasion, occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during a short period known to historians as the New Imperialism. The 10 percent of Africa that was under formal European control in 1870 increased to almost 90 percent by 1914, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and Liberia remaining independent. European motives included the desire to control valuable natural resources, rivalry and the quest for national prestige, and religious missionary zeal, although internal African politics also played a role." }, { "page": "British_Empire", "title": "British Empire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/1000px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1000px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire", "summary": "The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km2 (13,700,000 sq mi), 24% of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, the phrase \"the empire on which the sun never sets\" was often used to describe the British Empire as its expanse around the globe meant that the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories." }, { "page": "Decolonization", "title": "Decolonization", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization", "summary": "Decolonization or decolonisation is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby a nation establishes and maintains its domination of overseas territories. The concept particularly applies to the dismantlement, during the second half of the 20th century, of the colonial empires established prior to World War I throughout the world. Scholars focus especially on the movements in the colonies demanding independence, such as Creole nationalism." }, { "page": "World_War_I", "title": "World War I", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/WWImontage.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/WWImontage.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I", "summary": "World War I was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. Contemporaneously known as the Great War or \"the war to end all wars\", it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history. It is also one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with an estimated nine million combatant deaths and 13 million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war, while resulting genocides and the related 1918 Spanish flu pandemic caused another 17–100 million deaths worldwide, including an estimated 2.64 million Spanish flu deaths in Europe and as many as 675,000 Spanish flu deaths in the United States." }, { "page": "Soviet_Union", "title": "Soviet Union", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/1200px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union", "summary": "The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a federal socialist state in Northern Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics, in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. It was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party, with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, Alma-Ata and Novosibirsk. It was the largest country in the world by surface area, spanning over 10,000 kilometers (6,200 mi) east to west across 11 time zones and over 7,200 kilometers (4,500 mi) north to south. Its territory included much of Eastern Europe as well as part of Northern Europe and all of Northern and Central Asia. It had five climate zones such as tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was collectively known as Soviet people." }, { "page": "Great_Depression", "title": "Great Depression", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression", "summary": "The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States. The timing of the Great Depression varied across the world; in most countries, it started in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how intensely the global economy can decline." }, { "page": "World_War_II", "title": "World War II", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/NRAWanjialing1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NRAWanjialing1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II", "summary": "World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. In a state of total war, directly involving more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 70 to 85 million fatalities. Tens of millions of people died due to genocides, premeditated death from starvation, massacres, and disease. Aircraft played a major role in the conflict, including in the use of strategic bombing of population centres, and the only uses of nuclear weapons in war." }, { "page": "Cold_War", "title": "Cold War", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/NATO_vs._Warsaw_%281949-1990%29.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NATO_vs._Warsaw_%281949-1990%29.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War", "summary": "The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, after World War II. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but the period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. The term \"cold\" is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by the two powers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany in 1945. The doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD) discouraged a pre-emptive attack by either side. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events and technological competitions such as the Space Race." }, { "page": "Space_Race", "title": "Space Race", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sputnik_asm.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race", "summary": "The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), to achieve firsts in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II. The technological advantage required to rapidly achieve spaceflight milestones was seen as necessary for national security, and mixed with the symbolism and ideology of the time. The Space Race led to pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon." } ] }, "Geography": { "General": [ { "page": "Geography", "title": "Geography", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography", "summary": "Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of the Earth and planets. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be." } ], "Continents and regions": [ { "page": "Continent", "title": "Continent", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Continental_models-Australia.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Continental_models-Australia.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continent", "summary": "A continent is one of several very large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven regions are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Variations with fewer continents may merge some of these, for example some systems include Eurasia or America as single continents." }, { "page": "Africa", "title": "Africa", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/550px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/550px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa", "summary": "Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area. With 1.3 billion people as of 2018, it accounts for about 16% of the world's human population. Africa's average population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Despite a wide range of natural resources, the continent is the least wealthy per capita, in part due to legacies of European colonization in Africa and the Cold War. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context." }, { "page": "Antarctica", "title": "Antarctica", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/537px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/537px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica", "summary": "Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,200,000 square kilometres, it is the fifth-largest continent and nearly twice the size of Australia. At 0.00008 people per square kilometre, it is by far the least densely populated continent. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula." }, { "page": "Asia", "title": "Asia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/541px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/541px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia", "summary": "Asia is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres (17,212,000 sq mi), about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements, as well as vast barely populated regions. Its 4.5 billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world's population." }, { "page": "Europe", "title": "Europe", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary_%28with_borders%29.svg/537px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary_%28with_borders%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/537px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary_%28with_borders%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe", "summary": "Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia and is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the waterways of the Turkish Straits. Although some of this border is over land, Europe is generally accorded the status of a full continent because of its great physical size and the weight of history and tradition." }, { "page": "North_America", "title": "North America", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/550px-Location_North_America.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/550px-Location_North_America.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America", "summary": "North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as a northern subcontinent of the Americas, or America, in models that use fewer than seven continents. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean." }, { "page": "South_America", "title": "South America", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/541px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/541px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America", "summary": "South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, or America, which is how it is viewed in Spanish and Portuguese-speaking regions of the Americas. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics." }, { "page": "Arctic", "title": "Arctic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf/page1-4770px-Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/page1-4770px-Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic", "summary": "The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places." }, { "page": "Arctic", "title": "Arctic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf/page1-4770px-Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/page1-4770px-Political_Map_of_the_Arctic.pdf.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic", "summary": "The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places." }, { "page": "Middle_East", "title": "Middle East", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/553px-Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/553px-Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East", "summary": "The Middle East is a transcontinental region in Afro-Eurasia which generally includes Western Asia, all of Egypt, and Turkey. The term has come into wider usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. The broader concept of the \"Greater Middle East\" also includes the Maghreb, Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia, the Comoros, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and sometimes Transcaucasia and Central Asia into the region. The term \"Middle East\" has led to some confusion over its changing definitions." }, { "page": "Oceania", "title": "Oceania", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/541px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/541px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania", "summary": "Oceania is a geographic region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Spanning the eastern and western hemispheres, Oceania has a land area of 8,525,989 square kilometres (3,291,903 sq mi) and a population of over 41 million. When compared to continents, the region of Oceania is the smallest in land area and the second smallest in population after Antarctica." } ], "Cities": [ { "page": "City", "title": "City", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Paris_-_Eiffelturm_und_Marsfeld2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Paris_-_Eiffelturm_und_Marsfeld2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City", "summary": "A city is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service distribution. This concentration also can have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources." }, { "page": "Beijing", "title": "Beijing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Tiananmen_Gate.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tiananmen_Gate.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing", "summary": "Beijing, alternatively romanized as Peking, is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the world's most populous capital city, with over 21 million residents within an administrative area of 16,410.5 km2. The city, located in North China, is governed as a municipality under the direct administration of the central government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is mostly surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin to the southeast; together, the three divisions form the Jingjinji megalopolis and the national capital region of China.\nBeijing is an important world capital and global power city, and one of the world's leading centers for culture, diplomacy and politics, business and economy, education, language, and science and technology. A megacity, Beijing is the second-largest Chinese city by urban population after Shanghai and is the nation's cultural, educational, and political center. It is home to the headquarters of most of China's largest state-owned companies and houses the largest number of Fortune Global 500 companies in the world, as well as the world's four biggest financial institutions. Beijing has also been described as the \"billionaire capital of the world\" after overtaking New York City. It is also a major hub for the national highway, expressway, railway, and high-speed rail networks. The Beijing Capital International Airport has been the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic since 2010, and, as of 2016, the city's subway network is the busiest and longest in the world. The Beijing Daxing International Airport, a second international airport in Beijing, is the largest single-structure airport terminal in the world. Beijing is classified as an Alpha+ city, making it one of the world's Top 10 major cities together with Hong Kong and Shanghai in China by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. In 2020, it ranks 7th globally and 5th in Asia in the Global Financial Centres Index." }, { "page": "Cairo", "title": "Cairo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Towers_on_the_Nile.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Towers_on_the_Nile.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo", "summary": "Cairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world. Its metropolitan area, with a population of over 20 million, is the largest in Africa, the Arab world, and the Middle East, and the 6th-largest in the world. Cairo is associated with ancient Egypt, as the famous Giza pyramid complex and the ancient city of Memphis are located in its geographical area. Located near the Nile Delta, Cairo was founded in 969 AD by the Fatimid dynasty, but the land composing the present-day city was the site of ancient national capitals whose remnants remain visible in parts of Old Cairo. Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life, and is titled \"the city of a thousand minarets\" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture. Cairo is considered a World City with a \"Beta +\" classification according to GaWC." }, { "page": "Delhi", "title": "Delhi", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IN-DL.svg/512px-IN-DL.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-IN-DL.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi", "summary": "Delhi, officially known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India.\nIt is bordered by the state of Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east. The NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the 2011 census, Delhi's city proper population was over 11 million, the second-highest in India after Mumbai, while the whole NCT's population was about 16.8 million. Delhi's urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundaries, and include the neighbouring satellite cities of Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida in an area called the National Capital Region (NCR) and had an estimated 2016 population of over 26 million people, making it the world's second-largest urban area according to the United Nations. \nRecent estimates of the metro economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the most or second-most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second-wealthiest city in India after Mumbai and is home to 18 billionaires and 23,000 millionaires. Delhi ranks fifth among the Indian states and union territories in human development index. Delhi has the second-highest GDP per capita in India. Delhi is of great historical significance as an important commercial, transport, and cultural hub, as well as the political centre of India." }, { "page": "Hong_Kong", "title": "Hong Kong", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/900px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong", "summary": "Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HKSAR), is a Cantonese speaking metropolitan area and special administrative region of the People's Republic of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta of the South China Sea. With over 7.5 million residents of various nationalities in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated places in the world." }, { "page": "Istanbul", "title": "Istanbul", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Europe_relief_laea_location_map.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Europe_relief_laea_location_map.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul", "summary": "Istanbul, formerly known as Byzantium and Constantinople, is the most populous city in Turkey and the country's economic, cultural and historic center. Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosporus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives in suburbs on the Asian side of the Bosporus. With a total population of around fifteen million residents in its metropolitan area, Istanbul is one of the world's largest cities by population, ranking as the world's fifteenth-largest city and the largest city in Europe. The city is the administrative centre of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality." }, { "page": "Jakarta", "title": "Jakarta", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Jakarta_Pictures-1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Jakarta_Pictures-1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta", "summary": "Jakarta, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. On the northwest coast of the world's most-populous island of Java, it is the centre of economy, culture and politics of Indonesia with a population of 10,770,487 in the city as of 2020. Although Jakarta only covers 699.5 square kilometres (270.1 sq mi), the smallest among any Indonesian provinces, its metropolitan area covers 6,392 square kilometres (2,468 sq mi), and is the world's second-most populous urban area after Tokyo, with a population of about 35.934 million as of 2020. Jakarta's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, have attracted migrants from across the Indonesian archipelago, making it a melting pot of numerous cultures. Jakarta is nicknamed the \"Big Durian\", the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the \"Big Apple\"." }, { "page": "Jerusalem", "title": "Jerusalem", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Jerusalem_infobox_image.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Jerusalem_infobox_image.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem", "summary": "Jerusalem is a city in the Middle East, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital, as Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power; however, neither claim is widely recognized internationally." }, { "page": "Lagos", "title": "Lagos", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/2014_Victoria_Island_Lagos_Nigeria_15006436297.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2014_Victoria_Island_Lagos_Nigeria_15006436297.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos", "summary": "Lagos is the most populous city in Nigeria and the African continent. Lagos is a major financial centre for all of Africa and is the economic hub of Lagos State. The megacity has the fourth-highest GDP in Africa and houses one of the largest and busiest seaports on the continent. It is one of the fastest growing cities in the world." }, { "page": "London", "title": "London", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/London_Montage_L.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/London_Montage_L.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London", "summary": "London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom. The city stands on the River Thames in the south-east of England, at the head of its 50-mile (80 km) estuary leading to the North Sea. London has been a major settlement for two millennia. Londinium was founded by the Romans. The City of London, London's ancient core and financial centre − an area of just 1.12 square miles (2.9 km2) and colloquially known as the Square Mile − retains boundaries that closely follow its medieval limits. The adjacent City of Westminster is an Inner London borough and has for centuries been the location of much of the national government. Thirty one additional boroughs north and south of the river also comprise modern London. London is governed by the mayor of London and the London Assembly." }, { "page": "Mecca", "title": "Mecca", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Final_circulation_of_the_Kaaba.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Final_circulation_of_the_Kaaba.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca", "summary": "Makkah, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah and commonly shortened to Mecca, is the holiest city in Islam and the capital of the Makkah Province of Saudi Arabia. The city is 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Its last recorded population was 1,578,722 in 2015. The estimated metro population in 2020 is 2.042 million, making it the third-most populated city in the kingdom. Pilgrims more than triple this number every year during the Ḥajj pilgrimage, observed in the twelfth Hijri month of Dhūl-Ḥijjah." }, { "page": "Mexico_City", "title": "Mexico City", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Mexico_City%2C_Mexico.svg/350px-Flag_of_Mexico_City%2C_Mexico.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/350px-Flag_of_Mexico_City%2C_Mexico.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City", "summary": "Mexico City is the capital and largest city of Mexico and the most-populous city in North America. Mexico City is one of the most important cultural and financial centres in the world. It is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus in the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The city has 16 subdivisions, formerly known as boroughs." }, { "page": "Moscow", "title": "Moscow", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Spasskaya_Tower_and_the_St._Basil's_Cathedral.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Spasskaya_Tower_and_the_St._Basil's_Cathedral.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow", "summary": "Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 12.4 million residents within the city limits, while over 17 million residents in the urban area, and over 20 million residents in the Moscow Metropolitan Area. The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometres (970 sq mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometres (2,275 sq mi), and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi). Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the most populous city entirely within Europe, the most populous urban area in Europe, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, and also the largest city by land area on the European continent." }, { "page": "Mumbai", "title": "Mumbai", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Mumbai_skyline_BWSL.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mumbai_skyline_BWSL.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai", "summary": "Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the most populous city in the country and the seventh-most populous city in the world with a population of roughly 20 million. As per Indian government population census of 2011, Mumbai is the most populous city in India with an estimated city proper population of 12.5 million living under Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. Mumbai is the centre of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, the sixth most populous metropolitan area in the world with a population of over 23 million. Mumbai lies on the Konkan coast on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named an alpha world city. It has the highest number of millionaires and billionaires among all cities in India. Mumbai is home to three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Elephanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, and the city's distinctive ensemble of Victorian and Art Deco buildings." }, { "page": "New_York_City", "title": "New York City", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Lower_Manhattan_skyline_-_June_2017.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lower_Manhattan_skyline_-_June_2017.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City", "summary": "New York City (NYC), often called simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2019 population of 8,336,817 distributed over about 302.6 square miles (784 km2), New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the U.S. state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass. With almost 20 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and approximately 23 million in its combined statistical area, it is one of the world's most populous megacities. New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, significantly influencing commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy." }, { "page": "Paris", "title": "Paris", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/La_Tour_Eiffel_vue_de_la_Tour_Saint-Jacques%2C_Paris_ao%C3%BBt_2014_%282%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/La_Tour_Eiffel_vue_de_la_Tour_Saint-Jacques%2C_Paris_ao%C3%BBt_2014_%282%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris", "summary": "Paris is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,148,271 residents as of 2020, in an area of 105 square kilometres. Since the 17th century, Paris has been one of Europe's major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, fashion, science and arts. The City of Paris is the centre and seat of government of the Île-de-France, or Paris Region, which has an estimated official 2020 population of 12,278,210, or about 18 percent of the population of France. The Paris Region had a GDP of €709 billion in 2017. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit Worldwide Cost of Living Survey in 2018, Paris was the second most expensive city in the world, after Singapore, and ahead of Zürich, Hong Kong, Oslo and Geneva. Another source ranked Paris as most expensive, on a par with Singapore and Hong Kong, in 2018." }, { "page": "Rome", "title": "Rome", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Rome_Montage_2017.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rome_Montage_2017.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome", "summary": "Rome is the capital city and a special comune of Italy as well as the capital of the Lazio region. The city has been a major human settlement for almost three millennia. With 2,860,009 residents in 1,285 km2 (496.1 sq mi), it is also the country's most populated comune. It is the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4,355,725 residents, thus making it the most populous metropolitan city in Italy. Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy. Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. Vatican City is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city; for this reason Rome has sometimes been defined as the capital of two states." }, { "page": "S%C3%A3o_Paulo", "title": "São Paulo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Montagem_SP.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Montagem_SP.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo", "summary": "São Paulo is a municipality in the Southeast Region of Brazil. The metropolis is an alpha global city and the most populous city in Brazil, the Americas, the Western Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. Additionally, São Paulo is the largest Portuguese-speaking city in the world. The municipality is also the world's 4th largest city proper by population. The city is the capital of the surrounding state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest state in Brazil. It exerts strong international influences in commerce, finance, arts and entertainment. The name of the city honors the Apostle, Saint Paul of Tarsus. The city's metropolitan area, the Greater São Paulo, ranks as the most populous in Brazil and the 12th most populous on Earth. The process of conurbation between the metropolitan areas located around the Greater São Paulo created the São Paulo Macrometropolis, a megalopolis with more than 30 million inhabitants, one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world." }, { "page": "Singapore", "title": "Singapore", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/4320px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/4320px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore", "summary": "Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bordering the Straits of Malacca to the west, the Riau Islands to the south, and the South China Sea to the east. The country's territory is composed of one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet, the combined area of which has increased by 25% since the country's independence as a result of extensive land reclamation projects. It has the second greatest population density in the world. The country is home to almost 5.7 million residents, 61% (3.4 million) of whom are Singaporean citizens. There are four official languages of Singapore: English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamil; with English being the lingua franca. Multiracialism is enshrined in the constitution, and continues to shape national policies in education, housing, and politics." }, { "page": "Tokyo", "title": "Tokyo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Skyscrapers_of_Shinjuku_2009_January.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Skyscrapers_of_Shinjuku_2009_January.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo", "summary": "Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis , is the capital and most populous prefecture of Japan. Located at the head of Tokyo Bay, the prefecture forms part of the Kantō region on the central Pacific coast of Japan's main island, Honshu. Tokyo is the political and economic center of the country, as well as the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the national government. In 2019, the prefecture had an estimated population of \t13,929,280. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, with more than 37.393 million residents as of 2020." } ], "Countries": [ { "page": "Country", "title": "Country", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CIA_WorldFactBook-Political_world.pdf/page1-6300px-CIA_WorldFactBook-Political_world.pdf.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/page1-6300px-CIA_WorldFactBook-Political_world.pdf.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country", "summary": "A country is a political state, nation, or territory which is controlled. It is often referred to as the land of an individual's birth, residence, or citizenship." }, { "page": "Argentina", "title": "Argentina", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/800px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/800px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina", "summary": "Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country located mostly in the southern half of South America. Sharing the bulk of the Southern Cone with Chile to the west, the country is also bordered by Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2 (1,073,500 sq mi), Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the fourth largest in the Americas, the second largest in South America after Brazil, and the largest Spanish-speaking nation by area. The sovereign state is subdivided into twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation as decided by Congress. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system. Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands." }, { "page": "Australia", "title": "Australia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/1280px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1280px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia", "summary": "Australia, officially known as the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the largest country in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country by total area. The population of 26 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Australia's capital is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. The country's other major metropolitan areas are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide." }, { "page": "Bangladesh", "title": "Bangladesh", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/1000px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1000px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh", "summary": "Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 162 million people. In terms of landmass, Bangladesh ranks 92nd, spanning 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi), making it one of the most densely-populated countries in the world. Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the west, north, and east, Myanmar to the southeast, and the Bay of Bengal to the south. It is narrowly separated from Nepal and Bhutan by the Siliguri Corridor, and from China by Sikkim, in the north, respectively. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's economic, political, and cultural hub. Chittagong, the largest seaport, is the second-largest city." }, { "page": "Brazil", "title": "Brazil", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/720px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/720px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil", "summary": "Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At 8.5 million square kilometers and with over 211 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area and the sixth most populous. Its capital is Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. The federation is composed of the union of the 26 states and the Federal District. It is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language and the only one in the Americas; it is also one of the most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century of mass immigration from around the world; as well as the most populous Roman Catholic-majority country." }, { "page": "Canada", "title": "Canada", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada", "summary": "Canada is a country in the northern part of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres, making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver." }, { "page": "China", "title": "China", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg/900px-Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China", "summary": "China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of around 1.4 billion in 2019. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, it is the world's third or fourth largest country by area. As a one-party state led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), it exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities, and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau." }, { "page": "Colombia", "title": "Colombia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/900px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia", "summary": "Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in the north of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, the northwest by Panama, the south by Ecuador and Peru, the east by Venezuela, the southeast by Brazil, and the west by the Pacific Ocean. It comprises 32 departments and the Capital District of Bogotá, the country's largest city." }, { "page": "Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo", "title": "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%283-2%29.svg/900px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%283-2%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%283-2%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo", "summary": "The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Kinshasa, Zaire, DR Congo, DRC, the DROC, or simply the Congo, is a country in Central Africa. It was formerly called Zaire (1971–1997). It is, by area, the largest country in sub-Saharan Africa, the second-largest in all of Africa, and the 11th-largest in the world. With a population of over 101 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most-populous officially Francophone country in the world, as well as the fourth-most populous in Africa, and the 15th-most-populous country in the world. Since 2015, the Eastern DR Congo has been the scene of an ongoing military conflict in Kivu." }, { "page": "Egypt", "title": "Egypt", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/900px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt", "summary": "Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip (Palestine) and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, across the Red Sea lies Saudi Arabia, and across the Mediterranean lie Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, although none share a land border with Egypt." }, { "page": "Ethiopia", "title": "Ethiopia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia", "summary": "Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Kenya to the south, South Sudan to the west and Sudan to the northwest. With over 109 million inhabitants as of 2019, Ethiopia is the 12th most populous country in the world, the second most populous nation on the African continent, and most populous landlocked country in the world. The country has a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi). Its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa, which lies several kilometres west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates. Ethiopian national identity is grounded in the historic and contemporary roles of Christianity and Islam, and the independence of Ethiopia from foreign rule, stemming from the various ancient Ethiopian kingdoms of antiquity." }, { "page": "France", "title": "France", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/900px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France", "summary": "France, officially the French Republic, is a country consisting of metropolitan France in Western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The metropolitan area of France extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea. It borders Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany to the northeast, Switzerland, Monaco and Italy to the east and Andorra and Spain to the south. The overseas territories include French Guiana in South America and several islands in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The country's 18 integral regions span a combined area of 643,801 square kilometres (248,573 sq mi) and a total population of 67.07 million. France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Other major urban areas include Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Lille and Nice. France, including its overseas territories, has the most time zones of any country, with a total of 12." }, { "page": "Germany", "title": "Germany", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/1000px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1000px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany", "summary": "Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central and Western Europe. Covering an area of 357,022 square kilometres (137,847 sq mi), it lies between the Baltic and North seas to the north, and the Alps to the south. It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands to the west." }, { "page": "India", "title": "India", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/1350px-Flag_of_India.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1350px-Flag_of_India.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India", "summary": "India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the second-most populous country, the seventh-largest country by land area, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia." }, { "page": "Indonesia", "title": "Indonesia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/900px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia", "summary": "Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of more than seventeen thousand islands, including Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (Papua). Indonesia is the world's largest island country and the 14th-largest country by land area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres. With over 267 million people, it is the world's 4th-most-populous country as well as the most-populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most-populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population." }, { "page": "Iran", "title": "Iran", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/630px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/630px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran", "summary": "Iran, also called Persia, and officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan, to the southeast by Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. Its central location in Eurasia and proximity to the Strait of Hormuz give it significant geostrategic importance. Tehran is the capital and largest city, as well as the leading economic and cultural hub; it is also the most populous city in Western Asia, with more than 8.8 million residents, and up to 15 million including the metropolitan area. With 83 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 17th most populous country. Spanning 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), it is the second largest country in the Middle East and the 17th largest in the world." }, { "page": "Israel", "title": "Israel", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/1100px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1100px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel", "summary": "Israel, formally known as the State of Israel, is a country in Western Asia, located on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. It has land borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan on the east, the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the east and west, respectively, and Egypt to the southwest. The country contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel's economic and technological center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, although recognition of the state's sovereignty over Jerusalem is limited." }, { "page": "Italy", "title": "Italy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/1500px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1500px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy", "summary": "Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country consisting of a peninsula delimited by the Alps and surrounded by several islands. Italy is located in south-central Europe, and is considered part of western Europe. A unitary parliamentary republic with Rome as its capital, the country covers a total area of 301,340 km2 (116,350 sq mi) and shares land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, and the enclaved microstates of Vatican City and San Marino. Italy has a territorial enclave in Switzerland (Campione) and a maritime exclave in Tunisian waters (Lampedusa). With around 60 million inhabitants, Italy is the third-most populous member state of the European Union." }, { "page": "Japan", "title": "Japan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/900px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan", "summary": "Japan is an island country in East Asia located in the northwest Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by the Sea of Japan to the west and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japan comprises an archipelago of 6,852 islands covering 377,975 square kilometers (145,937 sq mi); the country's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa. Tokyo is Japan's capital and largest city; other major cities include Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kobe, and Kyoto." }, { "page": "Kenya", "title": "Kenya", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/900px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya", "summary": "Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Eastern Africa. At 580,367 square kilometres (224,081 sq mi), Kenya is the world's 48th largest country by total area. With a population of more than 47.6 million people, Kenya is the 29th most populous country. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi, while its oldest city and first capital is the coastal city of Mombasa. Kisumu City is the third largest city and also an inland port on Lake Victoria. Other important urban centres include Nakuru and Eldoret. As of 2020, Kenya is the third largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria and South Africa. Kenya is bordered by South Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north, Somalia to the east, Uganda to the west, Tanzania to the south, and the Indian Ocean to the southeast." }, { "page": "Mexico", "title": "Mexico", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/980px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/980px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico", "summary": "Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Mexico covers 1,972,550 square kilometers (761,610 sq mi) and has approximately 128,649,565 inhabitants, making it the world's 13th-largest country by area, 10th-most-populous country, and most populous Spanish-speaking nation. It is a federation comprising 31 states and Mexico City, its capital city and largest metropolis. Other major urban areas include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and León." }, { "page": "Myanmar", "title": "Myanmar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar", "summary": "Myanmar or Burma, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, is a country in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by Bangladesh and India to its northwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. Myanmar is the largest in Mainland Southeast Asia and 10th largest in Asia by Area. As of 2017, the population is about 54 million. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city is Yangon (Rangoon). Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997." }, { "page": "Nigeria", "title": "Nigeria", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria", "summary": "Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a sovereign country located in West Africa bordering Niger in the north, Chad in the northeast, Cameroon in the east, and Benin in the west. Its southern coast is on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. Nigeria is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Abuja, is located." }, { "page": "Pakistan", "title": "Pakistan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/900px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan", "summary": "Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country with a population exceeding 212.2 million. It has the world's second-largest Muslim population. It is the 33rd-largest country by area, spanning 881,913 square kilometres. Pakistan has a 1,046-kilometre (650-mile) coastline along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest, and China to the northeast. It is separated narrowly from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor in the northwest, and also shares a maritime border with Oman." }, { "page": "Philippines", "title": "Philippines", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/1200px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines", "summary": "The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Situated in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of about 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao. The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both within the single urban area of Metro Manila. Bounded by the South China Sea on the west, the Philippine Sea on the east and the Celebes Sea on the southwest, the Philippines shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia and Brunei to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest." }, { "page": "Poland", "title": "Poland", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/1280px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1280px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland", "summary": "Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country located in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, covering an area of 312,696 square kilometres (120,733 sq mi), and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With a population of nearly 38.5 million people, Poland is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union. Poland's capital and largest metropolis is Warsaw. Other major cities include Kraków, Łódź, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk, and Szczecin." }, { "page": "Russia", "title": "Russia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/900px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia", "summary": "Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country located in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the south. Russia covers over 17,125,200 square kilometres (6,612,100 sq mi), spanning more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area, stretching eleven time zones, and bordering 16 sovereign nations." }, { "page": "Saudi_Arabia", "title": "Saudi Arabia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/750px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/750px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia", "summary": "Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a country in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately 2,150,000 km2 (830,000 sq mi), Saudi Arabia is geographically the largest sovereign state in Western Asia, the second-largest in the Arab world, the fifth-largest in Asia, and the 12th-largest in the world. Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south; it is separated from Egypt and Israel by the Gulf of Aqaba. It is the only country with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland and mountains. As of October 2018, the Saudi economy was the largest in the Middle East and the 18th largest in the world. Saudi Arabia also has one of the world's youngest populations, with approximately 50 percent of its population of 34.2 million being under 25 years old." }, { "page": "South_Africa", "title": "South Africa", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/900px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa", "summary": "South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. With over 59 million people, it is the world's 24th-most populous nation and covers an area of 1,221,037 square kilometres (471,445 sq mi). South Africa has three capital cities: executive Pretoria, judicial Bloemfontein and legislative Cape Town. The largest city is Johannesburg. About 80% of South Africans are of Black African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different African languages. The remaining population consists of Africa's largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry." }, { "page": "South_Korea", "title": "South Korea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/900px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea", "summary": "South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, and sharing a land border with North Korea. Half of the country's population of over 51 million people live in the Seoul Capital Area, the fifth-largest metropolitan area in the world." }, { "page": "Spain", "title": "Spain", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/750px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/750px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain", "summary": "Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southwestern Europe with some pockets of territory across the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean. Its continental European territory is situated on the Iberian Peninsula. Its territory also includes two archipelagos: the Canary Islands off the coast of North Africa, and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The African enclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, makes Spain the only European country to have a physical border with an African country (Morocco). Several small islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory. The country's mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean respectively." }, { "page": "Taiwan", "title": "Taiwan", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/900px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan", "summary": "Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. Neighbouring countries include the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. The main island of Taiwan has an area of 35,808 square kilometres (13,826 sq mi), with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly urbanised population is concentrated. Taipei is the capital as well as the largest metropolitan area of Taiwan. Other major cities include New Taipei, Kaohsiung, Taichung, Tainan and Taoyuan. With 23.7 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries, and is the most populous country and largest economy that is not a member of the United Nations (UN)." }, { "page": "Tanzania", "title": "Tanzania", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/900px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania", "summary": "Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to the south; Zambia to the southwest; and Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania." }, { "page": "Thailand", "title": "Thailand", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/900px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand", "summary": "Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and formerly known as Siam, is a country in Southeast Asia. Located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, it is composed of 76 provinces, and covers an area of 513,120 square kilometres, and a population of over 66 million people. Thailand is the world's 50th-largest country by land area, and the 22nd-most-populous country in the world. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, a special administrative area. Thailand is bordered to the north by Myanmar and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Myanmar. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. Nominally, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy; however, in recent history, its government has experienced multiple coups and periods of military dictatorships." }, { "page": "Turkey", "title": "Turkey", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey", "summary": "Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe. East Thrace, the part of Turkey in Europe, is separated from Anatolia by the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Istanbul, which straddles Europe and Asia, is the largest city in the country while Ankara is the capital. Turkey is bordered on its northwest by Greece and Bulgaria; north by the Black Sea; northeast by Georgia; east by Armenia, the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan and Iran; southeast by Iraq; south by Syria and the Mediterranean Sea; and west by the Aegean Sea. Approximately 70 to 80 percent of the country's citizens identify as Turkish, while Kurds are the largest minority, at between 15 to 20 percent of the population." }, { "page": "United_Kingdom", "title": "United Kingdom", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/1200px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom", "summary": "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country located off the north­western coast of the European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north­eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland. Otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the southwest, giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is 94,000 square miles (240,000 km2)." }, { "page": "United_States", "title": "United States", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/1235px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1235px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States", "summary": "The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States or America, is a country primarily located in central North America, between Canada and Mexico. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions. At 3.8 million square miles, it is the world's third- or fourth-largest country by total area. With a population of over 328 million, it is the third most populous country in the world. The national capital is Washington, D.C., and the most populous city is New York City." }, { "page": "Vietnam", "title": "Vietnam", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/900px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/900px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam", "summary": "Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is a country in Southeast Asia and the easternmost country on the Indochinese Peninsula. With an estimated 96.2 million inhabitants as of 2019, it is the 15th most populous country in the world. Vietnam shares its land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the west. It shares its maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital city is Hanoi, and its most populous city is Ho Chi Minh City, also known by its former name of Saigon." } ], "Hydrological features": [ { "page": "Sea", "title": "Sea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Paracas_National_Reserve%2C_Ica%2C_Peru-3April2011.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Paracas_National_Reserve%2C_Ica%2C_Peru-3April2011.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea", "summary": "The sea, the world ocean, or simply the ocean is the connected body of salty water that covers over 70% of Earth's surface, with a total volume of roughly 1,332,000,000 cubic kilometres [320,000,000 cu mi]. It moderates Earth's climate and has important roles in the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle. It has been travelled and explored since ancient times, while the scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly from the voyages of Captain James Cook to explore the Pacific Ocean between 1768 and 1779. The word sea is also used to denote smaller, partly landlocked sections of the ocean and certain large, entirely landlocked, saltwater lakes, such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea." }, { "page": "Arctic_Ocean", "title": "Arctic Ocean", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Arctic_Ocean_-_en.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Arctic_Ocean_-_en.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean", "summary": "The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea. It is sometimes classified as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, and it is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean." }, { "page": "Atlantic_Ocean", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Atlantic_Ocean_-_en.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Atlantic_Ocean_-_en.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean", "summary": "The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceans, with an area of about 106,460,000 km2 (41,100,000 sq mi). It covers approximately 20 percent of Earth's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area. It separates the \"Old World\" from the \"New World\"." }, { "page": "Mediterranean_Sea", "title": "Mediterranean Sea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Mediterranee_02_EN.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mediterranee_02_EN.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea", "summary": "The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually referred to as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago." }, { "page": "Indian_Ocean", "title": "Indian Ocean", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Indian_Ocean-CIA_WFB_Map.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Indian_Ocean-CIA_WFB_Map.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean", "summary": "The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or 19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica, depending on the definition in use. Along its core, the Indian Ocean has some large marginal or regional seas such as the Arabian Sea, the Laccadive Sea, the Somali Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Andaman Sea." }, { "page": "Pacific_Ocean", "title": "Pacific Ocean", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Pacific_Ocean_-_en.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pacific_Ocean_-_en.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean", "summary": "The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east." }, { "page": "Great_Barrier_Reef", "title": "Great Barrier Reef", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef", "summary": "The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland." }, { "page": "Lake", "title": "Lake", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Sevan_Armenia_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sevan_Armenia_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake", "summary": "A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although like the much larger oceans, they form part of earth's water cycle. Lakes are distinct from lagoons which are generally coastal parts of the ocean. They are generally larger and deeper than ponds, which also lie on land, though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing in a channel on land. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams." }, { "page": "Caspian_Sea", "title": "Caspian Sea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Caspian_Sea_from_orbit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Caspian_Sea_from_orbit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Sea", "summary": "The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. As an endorheic basin, it is located between Europe and Asia, east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia, and north of the Iranian Plateau of Western Asia. The sea has a surface area of 371,000 km2 and a volume of 78,200 km3. It has a salinity of approximately 1.2%, about a third of the salinity of most seawater. It is bounded by Kazakhstan to the northeast, Russia to the northwest, Azerbaijan to the west, Iran to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southeast. The Caspian Sea is home to a wide range of species and may be best known for its caviar and oil industries. Pollution from the oil industry and dams on rivers draining into the Caspian Sea have had negative effects on the organisms living in the sea." }, { "page": "Great_Lakes", "title": "Great Lakes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Great_Lakes_from_space_crop_labeled.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Great_Lakes_from_space_crop_labeled.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes", "summary": "The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the upper mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River. In general, they are on or near the Canada–United States border. They are lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Hydrologically, there are only four lakes, because lakes Michigan and Huron join at the Straits of Mackinac. The Great Lakes Waterway enables travel by water between the lakes." }, { "page": "Lake_Victoria", "title": "Lake Victoria", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Victoria_lake_landsat_7.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Victoria_lake_landsat_7.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria", "summary": "Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes." }, { "page": "River", "title": "River", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Amazonrivermap.svg/1000px-Amazonrivermap.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1000px-Amazonrivermap.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River", "summary": "A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water. Small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the generic term river as applied to geographic features, although in some countries or communities a stream is defined by its size. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; examples are \"run\" in some parts of the United States, \"burn\" in Scotland and northeast England, and \"beck\" in northern England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always: the language is vague." }, { "page": "Amazon_River", "title": "Amazon River", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Rio_Amazonas_-_Parintins.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rio_Amazonas_-_Parintins.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_River", "summary": "The Amazon River in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river in the world." }, { "page": "Ganges", "title": "Ganges", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Varanasiganga.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Varanasiganga.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges", "summary": "The Ganges or Ganga is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through India and Bangladesh. The 2,704 km (1,680 mi) river originates from the Gangotri Glacier of western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of India and Bangladesh, eventually emptying into the Bay of Bengal." }, { "page": "Mississippi_River", "title": "Mississippi River", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Efmo_View_from_Fire_Point.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Efmo_View_from_Fire_Point.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River", "summary": "The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is 1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km2), of which only about one percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth-longest river and fifteenth-largest river by discharge in the world. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana." }, { "page": "Nile", "title": "Nile", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Evening%2C_Nile_River%2C_Uganda.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Evening%2C_Nile_River%2C_Uganda.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile", "summary": "The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa, and is the longest river in Africa and the disputed longest river in the world, as the Brazilian government says that the Amazon River is longer than the Nile. The Nile is about 6,650 km (4,130 mi) long and its drainage basin covers eleven countries: Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Republic of the Sudan, and Egypt. In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan." }, { "page": "Yangtze", "title": "Yangtze", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Dusk_on_the_Yangtze_River.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dusk_on_the_Yangtze_River.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze", "summary": "The Yangtze or Yangzi is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains and flows 6,300 km (3,900 mi) in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea. It is the sixth-largest river by discharge volume in the world. Its drainage basin comprises one-fifth of the land area of China, and is home to nearly one-third of the country's population." } ], "Terrestrial features": [ { "page": "Land", "title": "Land", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/AYool_topography_15min.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/AYool_topography_15min.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land", "summary": "Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture, habitat, and various natural resources. Some life forms have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water." }, { "page": "Desert", "title": "Desert", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/AtacamaDesertByFrode.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/AtacamaDesertByFrode.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert", "summary": "A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one-third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the polar regions, where little precipitation occurs, and which are sometimes called polar deserts or \"cold deserts\". Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location." }, { "page": "Sahara", "title": "Sahara", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara", "summary": "The Sahara is a desert located on the African continent. With an area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi), it is the largest hot desert in the world and the third largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the Arctic. The name 'Sahara' is derived from the Arabic word for \"desert\", ṣaḥra." }, { "page": "Forest", "title": "Forest", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Swiss_National_Park_131.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Swiss_National_Park_131.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest", "summary": "A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization definition, a forest is defined as land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use." }, { "page": "Amazon_rainforest", "title": "Amazon rainforest", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amazon_biome_outline_map.svg/371px-Amazon_biome_outline_map.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/371px-Amazon_biome_outline_map.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest", "summary": "The Amazon rainforest, alternatively, the Amazon Jungle, also known in English as Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations." }, { "page": "Glacier", "title": "Glacier", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier", "summary": "A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow under stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs, and other distinguishing features. They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that forms on the surface of bodies of water." }, { "page": "Grassland", "title": "Grassland", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Nachusa_Grasslands_Spring_2016.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nachusa_Grasslands_Spring_2016.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassland", "summary": "Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. They cover 31-43% of the earth's surface. Moreover, they are one of our planet's most productive landscapes. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands." }, { "page": "Island", "title": "Island", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/MODIS_-_Great_Britain_and_Ireland_-_2012-06-04_during_heat_wave.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/MODIS_-_Great_Britain_and_Ireland_-_2012-06-04_during_heat_wave.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island", "summary": "An island or isle is any piece of subcontinental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys. An island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. Sedimentary islands in the Ganges delta are called chars. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands, such as the Philippines, is referred to as an archipelago." }, { "page": "Mountain", "title": "Mountain", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Monasterio_Khor_Virap%2C_Armenia%2C_2016-10-01%2C_DD_25.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Monasterio_Khor_Virap%2C_Armenia%2C_2016-10-01%2C_DD_25.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain", "summary": "A mountain is a large landform that rises above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is generally considered to be steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism. These forces can locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, and glaciers. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges." }, { "page": "Alps", "title": "Alps", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Mont_Blanc_oct_2004.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mont_Blanc_oct_2004.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps", "summary": "The Alps are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, and stretch approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) across eight Alpine countries : France, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, and Slovenia. The Alpine arch generally extends from Nice on the western Mediterranean to Trieste on the Adriatic and Vienna at the beginning of the Pannonian basin. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn. Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,809 m (15,778 ft) is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4,000 metres (13,000 ft)." }, { "page": "Andes", "title": "Andes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Cordillera_de_los_Andes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cordillera_de_los_Andes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes", "summary": "The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long, 200 to 700 km wide, and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina." }, { "page": "Himalayas", "title": "Himalayas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas", "summary": "The Himalayas, or Himalaya, , is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has many of Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest, at the border between Nepal and China. The Himalayas include over fifty mountains exceeding 7,200 m (23,600 ft) in elevation, including ten of the fourteen 8,000-metre peaks. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia is 6,961 m (22,838 ft) tall." }, { "page": "Rocky_Mountains", "title": "Rocky Mountains", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Moraine_Lake_17092005.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Moraine_Lake_17092005.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains", "summary": "The Rocky Mountains, also known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch 3,000 mi (4,800 km) in straight-line distance from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico in the Southwestern United States. The northern terminus is located in the Liard River area east of the Pacific Coast Ranges, while the southernmost point is near the Albuquerque area adjacent the Rio Grande Basin and north of the Sandia–Manzano Mountain Range. Located within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are distinct from the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada, which all lie farther to the west." }, { "page": "Grand_Canyon", "title": "Grand Canyon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Canyon_River_Tree_%28165872763%29.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Canyon_River_Tree_%28165872763%29.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canyon", "summary": "The Grand Canyon is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in Arizona, United States. The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile." } ] }, "Arts": { "General": [ { "page": "The_arts", "title": "The arts", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/The_Arts_Collage.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Arts_Collage.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts", "summary": "The arts refers to the theory, human application and physical expression of creativity found in human cultures and societies through skills and imagination in order to produce objects, environments and experiences. Major constituents of the arts include visual arts, literary arts, performing arts, and culinary arts." }, { "page": "Art", "title": "Art", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art", "summary": "Art is a diverse range of human activities involving the creation of visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), which express the creator's imagination, conceptual ideas, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power. Other activities related to the production of works of art include art criticism and the history of art." }, { "page": "Prehistoric_art", "title": "Prehistoric art", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Rhinos_Chauvet_Cave.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rhinos_Chauvet_Cave.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art", "summary": "In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with another culture that has, and that makes some record of major historical events. At this point ancient art begins, for the older literate cultures. The end-date for what is covered by the term thus varies greatly between different parts of the world." }, { "page": "Museum", "title": "Museum", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/World_museums.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/World_museums.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum", "summary": "A museum is an institution that cares for (conserves) a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific importance. Many public museums make these items available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. The largest museums are located in major cities throughout the world, while thousands of local museums exist in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public. The goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public." } ], "Artistic movements": [ { "page": "Abstract_art", "title": "Abstract art", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Robert_Delaunay%2C_1913%2C_Premier_Disque%2C_134_cm%2C_52.7_inches%2C_Private_collection.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Robert_Delaunay%2C_1913%2C_Premier_Disque%2C_134_cm%2C_52.7_inches%2C_Private_collection.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_art", "summary": "Abstract art uses visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time." }, { "page": "Modernism", "title": "Modernism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism", "summary": "Modernism is both a philosophical movement and an art movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly emerging industrial world, including features such as urbanization, new technologies, and war. Artists attempted to depart from traditional forms of art, which they considered outdated or obsolete. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to \"Make it new!\" was the touchstone of the movement's approach." }, { "page": "Realism_(arts)", "title": "Realism (arts)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)", "summary": "Realism, sometimes called naturalism, in the arts is generally the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding speculative fiction and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and can be in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization." }, { "page": "Romanticism", "title": "Romanticism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism", "summary": "Romanticism was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature—all components of modernity. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, chess, social sciences, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing liberalism, radicalism, conservatism, and nationalism." } ], "Architecture": [ { "page": "Architecture", "title": "Architecture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/View_of_Santa_Maria_del_Fiore_in_Florence.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/View_of_Santa_Maria_del_Fiore_in_Florence.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture", "summary": "Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements." }, { "page": "Great_Pyramid_of_Giza", "title": "Great Pyramid of Giza", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza", "summary": "The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering present-day Giza in Greater Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact." }, { "page": "Great_Wall_of_China", "title": "Great Wall of China", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/The_Great_Wall_of_China_at_Jinshanling-edit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Great_Wall_of_China_at_Jinshanling-edit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China", "summary": "The Great Wall of China is the collective name of a series of fortification systems generally built across the historical northern borders of China to protect and consolidate territories of Chinese states and empires against various nomadic groups of the steppe and their polities. Several walls were being built from as early as the 7th century BC by ancient Chinese states; selective stretches were later joined together by Qin Shi Huang (220–206 BC), the first emperor of China. Little of the Qin wall remains. Later on, many successive dynasties have built and maintained multiple stretches of border walls. The most well-known sections of the wall were built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)." } ], "Literature": [ { "page": "Literature", "title": "Literature", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature", "summary": "Literature broadly is any collection of written or oral work, but it more commonly and narrowly refers to writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry, in contrast to academic writing and newspapers. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to now include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed." }, { "page": "English_literature", "title": "English literature", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_literature", "summary": "This article is focused on English-language literature rather than the literature of England, so that it includes writers from Scotland, Wales, the Crown dependencies, and the whole of Ireland, as well as literature in English from countries of the former British Empire, including the United States. However, until the early 19th century, it only deals with the literature of the United Kingdom, the Crown dependencies and Ireland. It does not include literature written in the other languages of Britain." }, { "page": "Fiction", "title": "Fiction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Alice_par_John_Tenniel_30.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Alice_par_John_Tenniel_30.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction", "summary": "Fiction generally is a narrative form, in any medium, consisting of people, events, or places that are imaginary—in other words, not based strictly on history or fact. In its most narrow usage, fiction refers to written narratives in prose and often specifically novels, though also novellas and short stories. More broadly, fiction has come to encompass imaginary narratives expressed in any form, including not just writings but also live theatrical performances, films, television programs, radio dramas, comics, role-playing games, and video games." }, { "page": "Novel", "title": "Novel", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel", "summary": "A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, normally written in prose form, and which is typically published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the Italian: novella for \"new\", \"news\", or \"short story of something new\", itself from the Latin: novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive of novus, meaning \"new\"." }, { "page": "Short_story", "title": "Short story", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story", "summary": "A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest types of literature and has existed in the form of legends, mythic tales, folk tales, fairy tales, fables and anecdotes in various ancient communities across the world. The modern short story developed in the early 19th century." }, { "page": "Fairy_tale", "title": "Fairy tale", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/D%C3%A4umling.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/D%C3%A4umling.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale", "summary": "A fairy tale, fairytale, wonder tale, magic tale, or Märchen is an instance of a folklore genre that takes the form of a short story. Such stories typically feature entities such as dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, or witches, and usually magic or enchantments. In most cultures, there is no clear line separating myth from folk or fairy tale; all these together form the literature of preliterate societies. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends and explicit moral tales, including beast fables." }, { "page": "Poetry", "title": "Poetry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Rafael_-_El_Parnaso_%28Estancia_del_Sello%2C_Roma%2C_1511%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rafael_-_El_Parnaso_%28Estancia_del_Sello%2C_Roma%2C_1511%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry", "summary": "Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language—such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre—to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning." }, { "page": "Epic_poetry", "title": "Epic poetry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/British_Museum_Flood_Tablet.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/British_Museum_Flood_Tablet.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry", "summary": "An epic poem, epic, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory in which occurred the extraordinary doings of the extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with the gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants, the poet and his audience, to understand themselves as a people or nation." } ], "Music": [ { "page": "Music", "title": "Music", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher%2C_Allegory_of_Music%2C_1764%2C_NGA_32680.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher%2C_Allegory_of_Music%2C_1764%2C_NGA_32680.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music", "summary": "Music is an art form, and cultural activity, whose medium is sound. General definitions of music include common elements such as pitch, rhythm, dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces and pieces that combine singing and instruments. The word derives from Greek μουσική .\nSee glossary of musical terminology." }, { "page": "Musical_instrument", "title": "Musical instrument", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Attributes_of_Music.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Attributes_of_Music.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument", "summary": "A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be considered a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have been used for ritual, such as a horn to signal success on the hunt, or a drum in a religious ceremony. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment. Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications and technologies." }, { "page": "Singing", "title": "Singing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Ah_cricket_20122_%287364759010%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ah_cricket_20122_%287364759010%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singing", "summary": "Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice and augments regular speech by the use of sustained tonality, rhythm, and a variety of vocal techniques. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist. Singers perform music that can be sung with or without accompaniment by musical instruments. Singing is often done in an ensemble of musicians, such as a choir of singers or a band of instrumentalists. Singers may perform as soloists or accompanied by anything from a single instrument up to a symphony orchestra or big band. Different singing styles include art music such as opera and Chinese opera, Indian music and religious music styles such as gospel, traditional music styles, world music, jazz, blues, ghazal and popular music styles such as pop, rock and electronic dance music." }, { "page": "Classical_music", "title": "Classical music", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Altes_AKH_Vienna_June_2006_583_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Altes_AKH_Vienna_June_2006_583_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music", "summary": "Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western culture, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music. While a more precise term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820, this article is about the broad span of time from before the 6th century AD to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other periods. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1650 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period." }, { "page": "Classical_music", "title": "Classical music", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Altes_AKH_Vienna_June_2006_583_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Altes_AKH_Vienna_June_2006_583_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music", "summary": "Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western culture, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music. While a more precise term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820, this article is about the broad span of time from before the 6th century AD to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other periods. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1650 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period." }, { "page": "Folk_music", "title": "Folk music", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Bartok_recording_folk_music.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bartok_recording_folk_music.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music", "summary": "Folk music includes traditional folk music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that." }, { "page": "Jazz", "title": "Jazz", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz", "summary": "Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime. Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression in traditional and popular music, linked by the common bonds of African-American and European-American musical parentage. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation. Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions." }, { "page": "Pop_music", "title": "Pop music", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music", "summary": "Pop is a genre of popular music that originated in its modern form during the mid-1950s in the United States and the United Kingdom. The terms popular music and pop music are often used interchangeably, although the former describes all music that is popular and includes many disparate styles. During the 1950s and 1960s, pop encompassed rock and roll and the youth-oriented styles it influenced. The terms remained roughly synonymous until the late 1960s, after which \"pop\" became associated with music that was more commercial, ephemeral, and accessible." }, { "page": "Rock_music", "title": "Rock music", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music", "summary": "Rock music is a broad genre of popular music that originated as \"rock and roll\" in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and developed into a range of different styles in the mid-1960s and later, particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, a style which drew heavily from the genres of blues, rhythm and blues, and from country music. Rock music also drew strongly from a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk, and incorporated influences from jazz, classical and other musical styles. For instrumentation, rock has centered on the electric guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass, drums, and one or more singers. Usually, rock is song-based music with a 4/4 time signature using a verse–chorus form, but the genre has become extremely diverse. Like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political." } ], "Performing arts": [ { "page": "Performing_arts", "title": "Performing arts", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Two_dancers.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Two_dancers.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts", "summary": "Performing arts refers to forms of art in which artists use their voices, bodies or inanimate objects to convey artistic expression. It is different from visual arts, which is when artists use paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Performing arts include a range of disciplines which are performed in front of a live audience, inducing theatre, music, and dance." }, { "page": "Dance", "title": "Dance", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Two_dancers.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Two_dancers.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance", "summary": "Dance is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin." }, { "page": "Opera", "title": "Opera", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Paris_Opera_full_frontal_architecture%2C_May_2009.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera", "summary": "Opera is a form of theatre in which music has a leading role and the parts are taken by singers, but is distinct from musical theatre. Such a \"work\" is typically a collaboration between a composer and a librettist and incorporates a number of the performing arts, such as acting, scenery, costume, and sometimes dance or ballet. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble, which since the early 19th century has been led by a conductor." }, { "page": "Orchestra", "title": "Orchestra", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Orquesta_Filarmonica_de_Jalisco.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Orquesta_Filarmonica_de_Jalisco.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra", "summary": "An orchestra is a large instrumental ensemble typical of classical music, which combines instruments from different families, including bowed string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass, brass instruments such as the horn, trumpet, trombone and tuba, woodwinds such as the flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon, and percussion instruments such as the timpani, bass drum, triangle, snare drum, cymbals, and mallet percussion instruments each grouped in sections. Other instruments such as the piano and celesta may sometimes appear in a fifth keyboard section or may stand alone, as may the concert harp and, for performances of some modern compositions, electronic instruments." }, { "page": "Theatre", "title": "Theatre", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre", "summary": "Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience. The specific place of the performance is also named by the word \"theatre\" as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι." } ], "Visual arts": [ { "page": "Visual_arts", "title": "Visual arts", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_The_Church_in_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_View_from_the_Chevet_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vincent_van_Gogh_-_The_Church_in_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_View_from_the_Chevet_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts", "summary": "The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts also involve aspects of visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design and decorative art." }, { "page": "Film", "title": "Film", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Muybridge_race_horse_animated.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Muybridge_race_horse_animated.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film", "summary": "Film, also called movie, motion picture or moving picture, is a visual art-form used to simulate experiences that communicate ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmosphere through the use of moving images. These images are generally accompanied by sound, and more rarely, other sensory stimulations. The word \"cinema\", short for cinematography, is often used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, and to the art form that is the result of it." }, { "page": "Animation", "title": "Animation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Animexample3edit.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Animexample3edit.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation", "summary": "Animation is a method in which figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures." }, { "page": "Calligraphy", "title": "Calligraphy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy", "summary": "Calligraphy is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a broad-tipped instrument, brush, or other writing instrument. A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as \"the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner\"." }, { "page": "Comics", "title": "Comics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Little_Nemo_sea.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Little_Nemo_sea.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comics", "summary": "Comics is a medium that expresses narratives or other ideas using a series of still images, usually combined with text. It typically takes the form of a sequence of panels of images. Textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia can indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. The size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing. Cartooning and other forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses photographic images. Common forms include gag-a-day comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, while online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century." }, { "page": "Design", "title": "Design", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design", "summary": "A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the implementation of an activity or process, or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a prototype, product or process. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design activity. The design usually has to satisfy certain goals and constraints, may take into account aesthetic, functional, economic, or socio-political considerations, and is expected to interact with a certain environment. Major examples of designs include architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams, and sewing patterns." }, { "page": "Drawing", "title": "Drawing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing", "summary": "Drawing is a form of visual art in which one uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, various kinds of paints, inked brushes, colored pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals. Digital drawing is the act of using a computer to draw. Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse. There are many digital art programs and devices." }, { "page": "Painting", "title": "Painting", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting", "summary": "Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used." }, { "page": "Photography", "title": "Photography", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Large_format_camera_lens.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Large_format_camera_lens.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography", "summary": "Photography is the art, application and practice of creating durable images by recording light, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing, and business, as well as its more direct uses for art, film and video production, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass communication." }, { "page": "Pottery", "title": "Pottery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Sz%C3%A9kely_Land_-_Great_Market_Hall%2C_2014.09.12_%2826%29.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sz%C3%A9kely_Land_-_Great_Market_Hall%2C_2014.09.12_%2826%29.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery", "summary": "Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard, durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. The definition of pottery used by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is \"all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products.\" In archaeology, especially of ancient and prehistoric periods, \"pottery\" often means vessels only, and figures etc. Of\nthe same material are called \"terracottas\". Clay as a part of the materials used is required by some definitions of pottery, but this is dubious." }, { "page": "Sculpture", "title": "Sculpture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dying_gaul.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture", "summary": "Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving and modelling, in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism, there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded or cast." } ] }, "Philosophy and religion": { "Philosophy": [ { "page": "Philosophy", "title": "Philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy", "summary": "Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. The term was probably coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation." }, { "page": "Philosophy_of_science", "title": "Philosophy of science", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science", "summary": "Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science." }, { "page": "Aesthetics", "title": "Aesthetics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics", "summary": "Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art. It examines subjective and sensori-emotional values, or sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste." }, { "page": "Aesthetics", "title": "Aesthetics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics", "summary": "Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art. It examines subjective and sensori-emotional values, or sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste." }, { "page": "Epistemology", "title": "Epistemology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology", "summary": "Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemologists study the nature of knowledge, epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and various related issues. Epistemology is considered one of the four main branches of philosophy, along with ethics, logic, and metaphysics." }, { "page": "Knowledge", "title": "Knowledge", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge", "summary": "Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or something, such as facts, skills, or objects. By most accounts, knowledge can be acquired in many different ways and from many difference sources, including but not limited to perception, reason, memory, testimony, scientific inquiry, education, and practice. The philosophical study of knowledge is called epistemology." }, { "page": "Belief", "title": "Belief", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief", "summary": "A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition about the world is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term \"belief\" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition \"snow is white\". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection. For example, few carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent, but can instead be dispositional." }, { "page": "Reason", "title": "Reason", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason", "summary": "Reason is the capacity of consciously making sense of things, applying logic, and adapting or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality." }, { "page": "Truth", "title": "Truth", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Time_Saving_Truth_from_Falsehood_and_Envy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Time_Saving_Truth_from_Falsehood_and_Envy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth", "summary": "Truth is the property of being in accord with fact or reality. In everyday language, truth is typically ascribed to things that aim to represent reality or otherwise correspond to it, such as beliefs, propositions, and declarative sentences." }, { "page": "Ethics", "title": "Ethics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics", "summary": "Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that \"involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior\". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology." }, { "page": "Good_and_evil", "title": "Good and evil", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_%281854%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_and_evil", "summary": "In religion, ethics, philosophy, and psychology \"good and evil\" is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated. In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā meaning emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil being two opposing principles but not a reality, emptying the duality of them, and achieving a oneness. A monism of goodness would guarantee prosperity since only good can exist, whereas a monism of evil would lead to our extinction." }, { "page": "Logic", "title": "Logic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic", "summary": "Logic is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments." }, { "page": "Metaphysics", "title": "Metaphysics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philbar_3.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics", "summary": "Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, between substance and attribute, and between potentiality and actuality. The word \"metaphysics\" comes from two Greek words that, together, literally mean \"after or behind or among [the study of] the natural\". It has been suggested that the term might have been coined by a first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle’s works into the treatise we now know by the name Metaphysics." }, { "page": "Existence", "title": "Existence", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence", "summary": "Existence is the ability of an entity to interact with physical or mental reality. In philosophy, it refers to the ontological property of being." }, { "page": "Free_will", "title": "Free will", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Abm2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Abm2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will", "summary": "Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded." }, { "page": "Ontology", "title": "Ontology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Parmenides.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Parmenides.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology", "summary": "Ontology is the philosophical study of being. More broadly, it studies concepts that directly relate to being, in particular becoming, existence, reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology often deals with questions concerning what entities exist or may be said to exist and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences." }, { "page": "Eastern_philosophy", "title": "Eastern philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Asianphilsidebar.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Asianphilsidebar.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy", "summary": "Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia including Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy which are dominant in East and Southeast Asia." }, { "page": "Eastern_philosophy", "title": "Eastern philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Asianphilsidebar.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Asianphilsidebar.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy", "summary": "Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia including Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy which are dominant in East and Southeast Asia." }, { "page": "Confucianism", "title": "Confucianism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg/665px-%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/665px-%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism", "summary": "Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life, Confucianism developed from what was later called the Hundred Schools of Thought from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius." }, { "page": "Western_philosophy", "title": "Western philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sanzio_01_cropped.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy", "summary": "Western philosophy refers to the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with Greek philosophy of the pre-Socratics such as Thales and Pythagoras, and eventually covering a large area of the globe. The word philosophy itself originated from the Ancient Greek philosophía (φιλοσοφία), literally, \"the love of wisdom\"." }, { "page": "Ancient_Greek_philosophy", "title": "Ancient Greek philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy", "summary": "Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, at a time when the ancient inhabitants of modern Greece were struggling, from all angles, to repel devastating invasions from the east and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Greece and most Greek-inhabited lands were part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to make sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics." }, { "page": "Contemporary_philosophy", "title": "Contemporary philosophy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sanzio_01_cropped.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy", "summary": "Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy." } ], "Religion": [ { "page": "Religion", "title": "Religion", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion", "summary": "Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. However, there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion." }, { "page": "Afterlife", "title": "Afterlife", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife", "summary": "The afterlife is an existence some believe that the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to have after the death of their physical body. According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit, of an individual, which carries with it and may confer personal identity or, on the contrary nirvana. Belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death." }, { "page": "Deity", "title": "Deity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Itzamna_e_Ixchel.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Itzamna_e_Ixchel.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity", "summary": "A deity or god is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as \"a god or goddess \", or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as \"a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life\". A goddess is a female deity." }, { "page": "God", "title": "God", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Acintya_Bali.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Acintya_Bali.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God", "summary": "In monotheistic thought, God is conceived of as the supreme being, creator deity, and principal object of faith. God is usually conceived as being omnipotent (all-powerful), omniscient (all-knowing), omnipresent (all-present) and omnibenevolent (all-good) as well as having an eternal and necessary existence. These attributes are used either in way of analogy or are taken literally. God is most often held to be incorporeal (immaterial). Incorporeality and corporeality of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the \"immanent transcendence\"." }, { "page": "Meditation", "title": "Meditation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Dhikr_Rifa-iyya.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dhikr_Rifa-iyya.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation", "summary": "Meditation is a practice where an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state. Scholars have found meditation elusive to define, as practices vary both between traditions and within them." }, { "page": "Myth", "title": "Myth", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth", "summary": "Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. The main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods, or supernatural humans. Stories of everyday human beings, although often of leaders of some type, are usually contained in legends, as opposed to myths." }, { "page": "New_religious_movement", "title": "New religious movement", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Russian_Hare_Krishna_Devotee_on_Sankirtan.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Russian_Hare_Krishna_Devotee_on_Sankirtan.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_religious_movement", "summary": "A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion or an alternative spirituality, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins but is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or they can be part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal with the challenges which the modernizing world poses to them by embracing individualism, while other NRMs deal with them by embracing tightly knit collective means. Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia and Africa. Most NRMs only have a few members, some of them have thousands of members, and a few of them have more than a million members." }, { "page": "Prayer", "title": "Prayer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Duerer-Prayer.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Duerer-Prayer.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer", "summary": "Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with an object of worship through deliberate communication. In the narrow sense, the term refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards a deity, or a deified ancestor. More generally, prayer can also have the purpose of thanksgiving or praise, and in comparative religion is closely associated with more abstract forms of meditation and with charms or spells." }, { "page": "Ritual", "title": "Ritual", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Missa_tridentina_002.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Missa_tridentina_002.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual", "summary": "A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed in a sequestered place and according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, but not defined, by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance." }, { "page": "Shamanism", "title": "Shamanism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Khagdaev1.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Khagdaev1.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism", "summary": "Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner, a shaman, who is believed to interact with a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct these spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world, for healing or some other purpose." }, { "page": "Soul", "title": "Soul", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul", "summary": "In many religious, philosophical, and mythological traditions, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living being. Soul or psyche comprises the mental abilities of a living being: reason, character, feeling, consciousness, memory, perception, thinking, etc. Depending on the philosophical system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal." }, { "page": "Spirituality", "title": "Spirituality", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality", "summary": "The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, and various connotations can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which \"aims to recover the original shape of man\", oriented at \"the image of God\" as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the religions of the world. The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mental aspects of life. In modern times, the term both spread to other religious traditions and broadened to refer to a wider range of experience, including a range of esoteric traditions and religious traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a sacred dimension and the \"deepest values and meanings by which people live\", often in a context separate from organized religious institutions, such as a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with one's own \"inner dimension\"." }, { "page": "Western_esotericism", "title": "Western esotericism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Tree_of_Life%2C_Medieval.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tree_of_Life%2C_Medieval.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism", "summary": "Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term under which scholars have categorised a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements which have developed within Western society. These ideas and currents are united by the fact that they are largely distinct both from orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and from Enlightenment rationalism. Esotericism has pervaded various forms of Western philosophy, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music, continuing to affect intellectual ideas and popular culture." }, { "page": "Secularism", "title": "Secularism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism", "summary": "Secularism may refer to any worldview or principle which defines the secular at a given context, and prioritizes, justifies or promotes it over the non-secular. \"Secularism\" has a broad range of meaning. While its definition as the separation of religion from civic affairs and the state is the most common, it may connote anticlericalism, atheism, naturalism, banishment of religious symbols from the public sphere and much more." }, { "page": "Atheism", "title": "Atheism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism", "summary": "Atheism is in the broadest sense an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists." } ], "Specific religions": [ { "page": "Buddhism", "title": "Buddhism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism", "summary": "Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers, or over 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists." }, { "page": "Mahayana", "title": "Mahayana", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana", "summary": "Mahāyāna is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna is considered of the two main existing branches of Buddhism. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India. It accepts the main scriptures and teachings of early Buddhism, but also adds various new doctrines and texts such as the Mahāyāna Sūtras." }, { "page": "Theravada", "title": "Theravada", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Thuparamaya_Stupa_and_Stone_Pillars.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thuparamaya_Stupa_and_Stone_Pillars.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada", "summary": "Theravāda is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed Theravādins, have preserved their version of Gautama Buddha's teaching in the Pāli Canon. The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language, Pāli, which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca. For over a millennium, theravādins have endeavored to preserve the dhamma as recorded in their school's texts. In contrast to Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine and monastic discipline." }, { "page": "Christianity", "title": "Christianity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/404px-Christian_cross.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/404px-Christian_cross.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity", "summary": "Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity, and chronicled in the New Testament. It is the world's largest religion, with about 2.4 billion followers as of 2020." }, { "page": "Bible", "title": "Bible", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Gutenberg_Bible%2C_Lenox_Copy%2C_New_York_Public_Library%2C_2009._Pic_01.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gutenberg_Bible%2C_Lenox_Copy%2C_New_York_Public_Library%2C_2009._Pic_01.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible", "summary": "The Bible is a collection of religious texts or scriptures sacred to Christians, Jews, Samaritans, Rastafari and others. They generally consider the Bible to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. The Bible appears in the form of an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms that are all linked by the belief that they collectively contain the word of God. These texts include theologically-focused historical accounts, hymns, prayers, proverbs, parables, didactic letters, erotica, poetry, and prophecies." }, { "page": "Catholic_Church", "title": "Catholic Church", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Saint_Peter's_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Saint_Peter's_Basilica_facade%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church", "summary": "The Catholic Church, sometimes referred to as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with approximately 1.3 billion baptised Catholics worldwide as of 2018. As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The church consists of almost 3,500 dioceses around the world on every continent, each shepherded by its bishop. The pope, is the chief pastor of the whole church, entrusted with the universal Petrine ministry of unity and correction. The church's international administration is the Holy See, located in the tiny, independent nation of Vatican City in Rome, Italy, of which the pope is also head of state." }, { "page": "Eastern_Orthodox_Church", "title": "Eastern Orthodox Church", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Church_of_St._George%2C_Istanbul_%28August_2010%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Church_of_St._George%2C_Istanbul_%28August_2010%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church", "summary": "The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Catholic Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 220 million baptised members. It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops in local synods. Roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in Russia. The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority analogous to the bishop of Rome, but the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople is recognised by all as primus inter pares of the bishops. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East." }, { "page": "Protestantism", "title": "Protestantism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism", "summary": "Protestantism is the second-largest form of Christianity with a total of 800 million to 1 billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. It originated with the 16th century Reformation, a movement against what its followers perceived to be errors in the Catholic Church. Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and matters of church polity and apostolic succession. They emphasize the priesthood of all believers, justification by faith alone rather than also by good works and the highest authority of the Bible alone in faith and morals. The \"five solae\" summarise basic theological differences in opposition to the Catholic Church." }, { "page": "Hinduism", "title": "Hinduism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism", "summary": "Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or way of life. It is the world's third-largest religion with over 1.25 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global population, known as Hindus. The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many practitioners refer to their religion as Sanātana Dharma, which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts. Another, though less fitting, self-designation is Vaidika dharma, the 'dharma related to the Vedas.'" }, { "page": "Vedas", "title": "Vedas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas", "summary": "The Vedas are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism." }, { "page": "Bhagavad_Gita", "title": "Bhagavad Gita", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Krishna_tells_Gita_to_Arjuna.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Krishna_tells_Gita_to_Arjuna.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita", "summary": "The Bhagavad Gita, often referred to as the Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic Mahabharata, commonly dated to the second century BCE." }, { "page": "Islam", "title": "Islam", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam", "summary": "Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah) and that Muhammad is a messenger of God. It is the world's second-largest religion with 1.9 billion followers or 24.5% of the world's population, known as Muslims. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and has guided mankind through prophets, revealed scriptures, and natural signs. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, believed to be the verbatim word of God, as well as the teachings and normative examples of Muhammad." }, { "page": "Shia_Islam", "title": "Shia Islam", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam", "summary": "Shia Islam or Shi'ism is one of the two main branches of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the Imam (leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from the caliphate as a result of the incident of Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and consider Abu Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. A person observing Shia Islam is called a Shi'i." }, { "page": "Sunni_Islam", "title": "Sunni Islam", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Ahlul_Sunnah.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ahlul_Sunnah.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam", "summary": "Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, followed by 87–90% of the world's Muslims, characterized by a greater emphasis upon the traditions of the prophet and his companions. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behaviour of the Islamic prophet, Prophet Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and subsequently acquired broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions. According to Sunni traditions, Muhammad designated his successor as Abu Bakr by commanding him to lead prayers when he was ill. The Muslim community later corroborated this by electing him as the first caliph. This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad announced his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor, most notably at Ghadir Khumm. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts and the rise of Salafism and Wahhabism." }, { "page": "Quran", "title": "Quran", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Qur'an_and_Rehal.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Qur'an_and_Rehal.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran", "summary": "The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God (Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. It is organized in 114 chapters (surah, which consist of verses." }, { "page": "Jainism", "title": "Jainism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Ahimsa_Jainism_Gradient.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ahimsa_Jainism_Gradient.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism", "summary": "Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Jain dharma traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or tirthankaras, with the first being Rishabhanatha or also known as Adinath bhagwan of this era, who lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha in 900 BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara the Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology." }, { "page": "Judaism", "title": "Judaism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism", "summary": "Judaism is an ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Children of Israel. It encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. The Torah is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world." }, { "page": "Talmud", "title": "Talmud", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud", "summary": "The Talmud is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (halakha) and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewish cultural life and was foundational to \"all Jewish thought and aspirations\", serving also as \"the guide for the daily life\" of Jews." }, { "page": "Shinto", "title": "Shinto", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Itsukushima_Gate.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Itsukushima_Gate.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto", "summary": "Shinto, also known as kami-no-michi, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners Shintoists, although adherents rarely use that term themselves. There is no central authority in control of the movement and much diversity exists among practitioners." }, { "page": "Sikhism", "title": "Sikhism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/GuruNanakFresco-Goindwal.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/GuruNanakFresco-Goindwal.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism", "summary": "Sikhism ; Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖੀ or Sikhi, is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century. \nIt is one of the youngest of the major religions and world's fifth-largest organized religion, with about 25 million Sikhs as of the early 21st century." }, { "page": "Taoism", "title": "Taoism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/512px-Tao.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Tao.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism", "summary": "Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasises living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasising rigid rituals and social order, but is similar in the sense that it is a teaching about the various disciplines for achieving \"perfection\" by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe called \"the way\" or \"tao\". Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasise wu wei, \"naturalness\", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: 慈 \"compassion\", 儉 \"frugality\", and 不敢為天下先 \"humility\"." } ] }, "Everyday life": { "General": [ { "page": "Clothing", "title": "Clothing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Clothes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Clothes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing", "summary": "Clothing is items worn on the body. Clothing is typically made of fabrics or textiles but over time has included garments made from animal skin or other thin sheets of materials put together. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on gender, body type, social, and geographic considerations." }, { "page": "Home", "title": "Home", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/SearsHouse115.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/SearsHouse115.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home", "summary": "A home, or domicile, is a living space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for an individual, family, household or several families in a tribe. It is often a house, apartment, or other building, or alternatively a mobile home, houseboat, yurt or any other portable shelter. A principle of constitutional law in many countries, related to the right to privacy enshrined in article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the inviolability of the home as an individual's place of shelter and refuge." }, { "page": "Furniture", "title": "Furniture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Couch_and_footstool_with_bone_carvings_and_glass_inlays_MET_DP142998.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Couch_and_footstool_with_bone_carvings_and_glass_inlays_MET_DP142998.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furniture", "summary": "Furniture refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating, eating (tables), and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work, or to store things. Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. It can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture." }, { "page": "Jewellery", "title": "Jewellery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Pectoral_and_Necklace_of_Sithathoryunet_with_the_Name_of_Senwosret_II_MET_DT531.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pectoral_and_Necklace_of_Sithathoryunet_with_the_Name_of_Senwosret_II_MET_DT531.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery", "summary": "Jewellery or jewelry consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a western perspective, the term is restricted to durable ornaments, excluding flowers for example. For many centuries metal such as gold used in different carats from 21, 18, 12, 9 or even lower, often combined with gemstones, has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as shells and other plant materials may be used. It is one of the oldest type of archaeological artefact – with 100,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells thought to be the oldest known jewellery. The basic forms of jewellery vary between cultures but are often extremely long-lived; in European cultures the most common forms of jewellery listed above have persisted since ancient times, while other forms such as adornments for the nose or ankle, important in other cultures, are much less common." } ], "Family and kinship": [ { "page": "Ethnic_group", "title": "Ethnic group", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group", "summary": "An ethnic group or ethnicity is a named social category of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. Ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism, and is separate from, but related to the concept of races." }, { "page": "Family", "title": "Family", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Family_Photos_May_2014-0089_%2814202670584%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Family_Photos_May_2014-0089_%2814202670584%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family", "summary": "In human society, family is a group of people related either by consanguinity or affinity. The purpose of families is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideally, families would offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and participate in the community. In most societies, it is within families that children acquire socialization for life outside the family. Additionally, as the basic unit for meeting the basic needs of its members, it provides a sense of boundaries for performing tasks in a safe environment, ideally builds a person into a functional adult, transmits culture, and ensures continuity of humankind with precedents of knowledge." }, { "page": "Adult", "title": "Adult", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult", "summary": "Biologically, an adult is an organism that has reached sexual maturity. In human context, the term adult additionally has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a \"minor\", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. The typical age of attaining legal adulthood is 18, although definition may vary by legal rights and country." }, { "page": "Old_age", "title": "Old age", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Bust_of_an_elderly_Roman_man%2C_marble_40BC%2C_Albertinum%2C_Dresden.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bust_of_an_elderly_Roman_man%2C_marble_40BC%2C_Albertinum%2C_Dresden.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_age", "summary": "Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms include old people, the elderly, OAPs, seniors, senior citizens, older adults, and the elders." }, { "page": "Adolescence", "title": "Adolescence", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Teens_sharing_a_song.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Teens_sharing_a_song.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescence", "summary": "Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier and end later. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus, age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence." }, { "page": "Child", "title": "Child", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child", "summary": "\nBiologically, a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. Children generally have fewer rights and less responsibility than adults. They are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must be under the care of their parents or another responsible caregiver." }, { "page": "Infant", "title": "Infant", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant", "summary": "An infant is the more formal or specialised synonym for \"baby\", the very young offspring of a human. The term may also be used to refer to juveniles of other organisms." }, { "page": "Marriage", "title": "Marriage", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Gehrts_Armin_verabschiedet_sich_von_Thusnelda_1884.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gehrts_Armin_verabschiedet_sich_von_Thusnelda_1884.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage", "summary": "Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally recognised union between people, called spouses, that establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies around the world, not only between cultures and between religions, but also throughout the history of any given culture and religion. Over time, it has expanded and also constricted in terms of who and what is encompassed. Typically, it is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged or sanctioned. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity. When defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. A marriage ceremony is called a wedding." }, { "page": "Parenting", "title": "Parenting", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenting", "summary": "Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship." }, { "page": "Friendship", "title": "Friendship", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/El_cuentito.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/El_cuentito.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendship", "summary": "Friendship is a relationship of mutual affection between people. It is a stronger form of interpersonal bond than an association, and has been studied in academic fields such as communication, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and philosophy. Various academic theories of friendship have been proposed, including social exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, and attachment styles." } ], "Sexuality and gender": [ { "page": "Human_sexuality", "title": "Human sexuality", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexuality", "summary": "Human sexuality is the way people experience and express themselves sexually. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. Because it is a broad term, which has varied with historical contexts over time, it lacks a precise definition. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle." }, { "page": "Sexual_orientation", "title": "Sexual orientation", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation", "summary": "Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generally subsumed under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, while asexuality is sometimes identified as the fourth category." }, { "page": "Gender", "title": "Gender", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Combotrans.svg/400px-Combotrans.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/400px-Combotrans.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender", "summary": "Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex, sex-based social structures, or gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders ; those who exist outside these groups fall under the umbrella term non-binary or genderqueer. Some societies have specific genders besides \"man\" and \"woman\", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders." }, { "page": "Man", "title": "Man", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man", "summary": "A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy." }, { "page": "Woman", "title": "Woman", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Woman_mechanic_working_on_engine_%28cropped%29.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Woman_mechanic_working_on_engine_%28cropped%29.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman", "summary": "A woman is an adult female human. The term woman may also refer to a girl. The plural women is sometimes used for female humans regardless of age, as in phrases such as \"women's rights.\"" } ], "Food and drink": [ { "page": "Cooking", "title": "Cooking", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Agdz-rosino-05.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Agdz-rosino-05.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking", "summary": "Cooking or cookery is the art, science and craft of using heat to prepare food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends." }, { "page": "Food", "title": "Food", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Good_Food_Display_-_NCI_Visuals_Online.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Good_Food_Display_-_NCI_Visuals_Online.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food", "summary": "Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is usually of plant, animal or fungal in origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their unique metabolisms, often evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts." }, { "page": "Bread", "title": "Bread", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Korb_mit_Br%C3%B6tchen.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Korb_mit_Br%C3%B6tchen.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread", "summary": "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been a prominent food in large parts of the world. It is one of the oldest man-made foods, having been of significant importance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture." }, { "page": "Cereal", "title": "Cereal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Various_grains.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Various_grains.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal", "summary": "A cereal is any grass cultivated (grown) for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat (Polygonaceae), quinoa (Amaranthaceae) and chia (Lamiaceae), are referred to as pseudocereals." }, { "page": "Wheat", "title": "Wheat", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wheat_close-up.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat", "summary": "Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the most widely grown is common wheat. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis." }, { "page": "Maize", "title": "Maize", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Zea_mays_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-283.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Zea_mays_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-283.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize", "summary": "Maize, also known as corn, is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits." }, { "page": "Rice", "title": "Rice", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/White%2C_Brown%2C_Red_%26_Wild_rice.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/White%2C_Brown%2C_Red_%26_Wild_rice.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice", "summary": "Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza glaberrima or Oryza sativa. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia and Africa. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize." }, { "page": "Cheese", "title": "Cheese", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Cowgirl_Creamery_Point_Reyes_-_Red_Hawk_cheese.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cowgirl_Creamery_Point_Reyes_-_Red_Hawk_cheese.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheese", "summary": "Cheese is a dairy product, derived from milk and produced in wide ranges of flavours, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and adding the enzymes of rennet causes the milk proteins (casein) to coagulate. The solids (curd) are separated from the liquid (whey) and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature." }, { "page": "Fruit", "title": "Fruit", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Culinary_fruits_front_view.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Culinary_fruits_front_view.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit", "summary": "In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering." }, { "page": "Nut_(fruit)", "title": "Nut (fruit)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Chestnut.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Chestnut.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(fruit)", "summary": "A nut is a fruit composed of an inedible hard shell and a seed, which is generally edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, a wide variety of dried seeds are called nuts, but in a botanical context \"nut\" implies that the shell does not open to release the seed (indehiscent). The translation of \"nut\" in certain languages frequently requires paraphrases, as the word is ambiguous." }, { "page": "Meat", "title": "Meat", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/FoodMeat.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/FoodMeat.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat", "summary": "Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses." }, { "page": "Salt", "title": "Salt", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/DeadSeaIsrael5.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/DeadSeaIsrael5.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt", "summary": "Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of solids per liter of sea water, a salinity of 3.5%." }, { "page": "Spice", "title": "Spice", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Spices1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Spices1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice", "summary": "A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production." }, { "page": "Sugar", "title": "Sugar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Sucre_blanc_cassonade_complet_rapadura.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sucre_blanc_cassonade_complet_rapadura.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar", "summary": "Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Table sugar, granulated sugar, or regular sugar, refers to sucrose, a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose." }, { "page": "Vegetable", "title": "Vegetable", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Marketvegetables.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Marketvegetables.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable", "summary": "Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. The alternate definition of the term is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains, but include savoury fruits such as tomatoes and courgettes, flowers such as broccoli, and seeds such as pulses." }, { "page": "Potato", "title": "Potato", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Patates.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Patates.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato", "summary": "The potato is a root vegetable native to the Americas, a starchy tuber of the plant Solanum tuberosum, and the plant itself is a perennial in the nightshade family, Solanaceae." }, { "page": "Soybean", "title": "Soybean", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Soybean.USDA.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Soybean.USDA.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean", "summary": "The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses." }, { "page": "Drink", "title": "Drink", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Nice_Cup_of_Tea.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nice_Cup_of_Tea.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drink", "summary": "A drink is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, coffee, tea, hot chocolate, juice and soft drinks. In addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years." }, { "page": "Alcoholic_drink", "title": "Alcoholic drink", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Common_alcoholic_beverages.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Common_alcoholic_beverages.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_drink", "summary": "An alcoholic drink is a drink that contains the recreational drug ethanol, a type of alcohol produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The consumption of alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures. Most countries have laws regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Some countries ban such activities entirely, but alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world. The global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2018." }, { "page": "Coffee", "title": "Coffee", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee", "summary": "Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, the seeds of berries from certain Coffea species. When coffee berries turn from green to bright red in color – indicating ripeness – they are picked, processed, and dried. Dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and then brewed with near-boiling water to produce the beverage known as coffee." }, { "page": "Drinking_water", "title": "Drinking water", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Drinking_water.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Drinking_water.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water", "summary": "Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. In the USA people, on average, drink one litre of water per day and 95% drink less than three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres a day may be required." }, { "page": "Milk", "title": "Milk", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Glass_of_Milk_%2833657535532%29.jpg/1958px-Glass_of_Milk_%2833657535532%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1958px-Glass_of_Milk_%2833657535532%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk", "summary": "Milk is a nutrient-rich liquid food produced in the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to its young and can reduce the risk of many diseases. It contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. Interspecies consumption of milk is not uncommon, particularly among humans, many of whom consume the milk of other mammals." }, { "page": "Tea", "title": "Tea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Longjing_tea_steeping_in_gaiwan.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Longjing_tea_steeping_in_gaiwan.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea", "summary": "Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to East Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some, like Darjeeling and Chinese greens, have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour, while others have vastly different profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral, or grassy notes. Tea has a stimulating effect in humans primarily by its caffeine content." } ], "Recreation and entertainment": [ { "page": "Entertainment", "title": "Entertainment", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Symposium_scene_Nicias_Painter_MAN.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Symposium_scene_Nicias_Painter_MAN.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment", "summary": "Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention. Although people's attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, developed into sophisticated forms and over time became available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses a private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products; to a banquet adapted for two; to any size or type of party, with appropriate music and dance; to performances intended for thousands; and even for a global audience." }, { "page": "Play_(activity)", "title": "Play (activity)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Playfulness_by_Paul_Manship%2C_1912-1914_-_DSC03107.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Playfulness_by_Paul_Manship%2C_1912-1914_-_DSC03107.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(activity)", "summary": "Play is a range of intrinsically motivated activities done for recreational pleasure and enjoyment. Play is commonly associated with children and juvenile-level activities, but play occurs at any life stage, and among other higher-functioning animals as well, most notably mammals." }, { "page": "Game", "title": "Game", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Paris_-_Tout%C3%A2nkhamon%2C_le_Tr%C3%A9sor_du_Pharaon_-_Plateau_de_jeu_miniature_en_ivoire_-_005.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Paris_-_Tout%C3%A2nkhamon%2C_le_Tr%C3%A9sor_du_Pharaon_-_Plateau_de_jeu_miniature_en_ivoire_-_005.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game", "summary": "A game is a structured form of play, usually undertaken for entertainment or fun, and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is usually carried out for remuneration, and from art, which is more often an expression of aesthetic or ideological elements. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are also considered to be work or art." }, { "page": "Board_game", "title": "Board game", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/US_Navy_110713-N-NT881-124_Personnel_Specialist_2nd_Class_James_Vail%2C_left%2C_and_Boatswain's_Mate_2nd_Class_Nathaniel_Eaton_play_board_games_with_ch.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/US_Navy_110713-N-NT881-124_Personnel_Specialist_2nd_Class_James_Vail%2C_left%2C_and_Boatswain's_Mate_2nd_Class_Nathaniel_Eaton_play_board_games_with_ch.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game", "summary": "Board games are traditionally a subset of tabletop games that involve counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or \"board\", according to a set of rules. In common parlance, however, a board game need not necessarily contain a physical board. Some games are based on pure strategy, but many contain an element of chance; and some are purely chance, with no element of skill." }, { "page": "Card_game", "title": "Card game", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Theodoor_Rombouts_-_Joueurs_de_cartes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Theodoor_Rombouts_-_Joueurs_de_cartes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_game", "summary": "A card game is any game using playing cards as the primary device with which the game is played, be they traditional or game-specific." }, { "page": "Gambling", "title": "Gambling", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Caravaggio_%28Michelangelo_Merisi%29_-_The_Cardsharps_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Caravaggio_%28Michelangelo_Merisi%29_-_The_Cardsharps_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling", "summary": "Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome, with the primary intent of winning money or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements to be present: consideration, risk (chance), and a prize. The outcome of the wager is often immediate, such as a single roll of dice, a spin of a roulette wheel, or a horse crossing the finish line, but longer time frames are also common, allowing wagers on the outcome of a future sports contest or even an entire sports season." }, { "page": "Video_game", "title": "Video game", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Freedoom002_01.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Freedoom002_01.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game", "summary": "A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface or input device -- such as a joystick, controller, keyboard, or motion sensing devices, to generate visual feedback for a player. This is then shown on a two- or three-dimensional video display device such as a TV set, monitor, touchscreen, or virtual reality headset. Video games are augmented with audio feedback from speakers or headphones, and optionally with other types of feedback systems including haptic technology." }, { "page": "Sport", "title": "Sport", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport", "summary": "Sport includes all forms of competitive physical activity or games which, through casual or organized participation, at least in part aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators. Sports can bring positive results to one's physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a \"tie\" or \"draw\", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs." }, { "page": "Association_football", "title": "Association football", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Football_iu_1996.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Football_iu_1996.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football", "summary": "Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played with a spherical ball between two teams of 11 players. It is played by approximately 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies, making it the world's most popular sport. The game is played on a rectangular field called a pitch with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to outscore the opposition by moving the ball beyond the goal line into the opposing goal. The team with the higher number of goals wins the game." }, { "page": "Sport_of_athletics", "title": "Sport of athletics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Athletics_competitions.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Athletics_competitions.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_of_athletics", "summary": "Athletics is a group of sporting events that involves competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of athletics competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running, and race walking." }, { "page": "Olympic_Games", "title": "Olympic Games", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg/342px-Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/342px-Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games", "summary": "The modern Olympic Games or Olympics are leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are normally held every four years, alternating between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years in the four-year period." }, { "page": "Toy", "title": "Toy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Wooden_toys_%28cropped%29.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wooden_toys_%28cropped%29.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy", "summary": "A toy is an item that is used in play, especially one designed for such use. Playing with toys can be an enjoyable means of training young children for life in society. Different materials like wood, clay, paper, and plastic are used to make toys. Many items are designed to serve as toys, but goods produced for other purposes can also be used. For instance, a small child may fold an ordinary piece of paper into an airplane shape and \"fly it\". Newer forms of toys include interactive digital entertainment. Some toys are produced primarily as collectors' items and are intended for display only." }, { "page": "Martial_arts", "title": "Martial arts", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Young_boxers_fresco%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Greece.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Young_boxers_fresco%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Greece.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_arts", "summary": "Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the preservation of a nation's intangible cultural heritage." }, { "page": "Swimming", "title": "Swimming", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Natacio.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Natacio.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming", "summary": "Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response." }, { "page": "Tourism", "title": "Tourism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/1_times_square_night_2013.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1_times_square_night_2013.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism", "summary": "Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go \"beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only\", as people \"traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes\"." } ] }, "Society and social sciences": { "General": [ { "page": "Culture", "title": "Culture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/AltamiraBison.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/AltamiraBison.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture", "summary": "Culture is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups." }, { "page": "Folklore", "title": "Folklore", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder_-_The_Dutch_Proverbs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder_-_The_Dutch_Proverbs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore", "summary": "Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain in a formal school curriculum or study in the fine arts. Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration. The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics, and it can be explored at undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. levels." }, { "page": "Festival", "title": "Festival", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Village_Feast_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_of_the_Sandrin_ou_Verd_Galant_facetious_Work_of_the_End_of_the_Sixteenth_Century_edition_of_1609.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Village_Feast_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_of_the_Sandrin_ou_Verd_Galant_facetious_Work_of_the_End_of_the_Sixteenth_Century_edition_of_1609.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival", "summary": "A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture interrelationship. Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern." }, { "page": "Oral_tradition", "title": "Oral tradition", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Kyrgyz_Manaschi%2C_Karakol.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kyrgyz_Manaschi%2C_Karakol.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition", "summary": "Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. The transmission is through speech or song and may include folktales, ballads, chants, prose or verses. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral literature, oral law and other knowledge across generations without a writing system, or in parallel to a writing system. Religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Catholicism, and Jainism, for example, have used an oral tradition, in parallel to a writing system, to transmit their canonical scriptures, rituals, hymns and mythologies from one generation to the next." }, { "page": "Popular_culture", "title": "Popular culture", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture", "summary": "Popular culture is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of the practices, beliefs, and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a society at a given point in time. Popular culture also encompasses the activities and feelings produced as a result of interaction with these dominant objects. Heavily influenced in modern times by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of people in a given society. Therefore, popular culture has a way of influencing an individual's attitudes towards certain topics. However, there are various ways to define pop culture. Because of this, popular culture is something that can be defined in a variety of conflicting ways by different people across different contexts. It is generally viewed in contrast to other forms of culture such as folk cults, working-class culture, or high culture, and also through different high praised perspectives such as psychoanalysis, structuralism, postmodernism, and more. The most common pop-culture categories are: entertainment, sports, news, politics, fashion, technology, and slang." }, { "page": "Society", "title": "Society", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society", "summary": "A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences, a larger society often exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups." }, { "page": "Community", "title": "Community", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Stonehenge_Summer_Solstice_eve_02.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Stonehenge_Summer_Solstice_eve_02.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community", "summary": "A community is a social unit with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, \"community\" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities." }, { "page": "Power_(social_and_political)", "title": "Power (social and political)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)", "summary": "In social science and politics, power is the capacity of an individual to influence the actions, beliefs, or conduct (behaviour) of others. The term authority is often used for power that is perceived as legitimate by the social structure." }, { "page": "Social_class", "title": "Social class", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Samurai_and_servant.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Samurai_and_servant.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class", "summary": "A social class is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification which occurs in class society, in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes." }, { "page": "Communication", "title": "Communication", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication", "summary": "Communication is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules." }, { "page": "Social_science", "title": "Social science", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Archaeologists_capturing_the_object.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Archaeologists_capturing_the_object.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science", "summary": "Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original \"science of society\", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, media studies, political science, psychology, and social history." }, { "page": "Anthropology", "title": "Anthropology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Antropologo_social.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Antropologo_social.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology", "summary": "Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour and cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans. Visual anthropology, which is usually considered to be a part of social anthropology, can mean both ethnographic film as well as the study of \"visuals\", including art, visual images, cinema etc. Oxford Bibliographies describes visual anthropology as \"the anthropological study of the visual and the visual study of the anthropological\"." }, { "page": "Sociology", "title": "Sociology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/670px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology", "summary": "Sociology is the study of human behavior. Sociology refers to social behavior, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change. Sociology can also be defined as the general science of society. While some sociologists conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter can range from micro-level analyses of society to macro-level analyses." } ], "Politics and government": [ { "page": "Politics", "title": "Politics", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics", "summary": "Politics is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations between individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The academic study of politics is referred to as political science." }, { "page": "Political_party", "title": "Political party", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party", "summary": "In politics, a political party is an organized group of people who have the same ideology, or who otherwise have the same political positions, and who field candidates for elections, in an attempt to get them elected and thereby implement their agenda. Political parties are a defining element of representative democracy." }, { "page": "Political_science", "title": "Political science", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science", "summary": "Political Science, occasionally called Politology, is a social science which deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts, associated constitutions and political behaviour." }, { "page": "Colonialism", "title": "Colonialism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Musee-de-lArmee-IMG_0976.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Musee-de-lArmee-IMG_0976.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism", "summary": "Colonialism is the policy of a country seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories, generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their religion, language, economics, and other cultural practices on indigenous peoples. The foreign administrators rule the territory in pursuit of their interests, seeking to benefit from the colonised region's people and resources." }, { "page": "Imperialism", "title": "Imperialism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism", "summary": "Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending the rule or authority of a country over other countries and people, often by military force or by gaining political and economic control. While related to the concepts of colonialism and empire, imperialism is a distinct concept that can apply to other forms of expansion and many forms of government." }, { "page": "Government", "title": "Government", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Forms_of_government.svg/921px-Forms_of_government.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/921px-Forms_of_government.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government", "summary": "A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state, but also other entities, for example, a company." }, { "page": "Democracy", "title": "Democracy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Election_MG_3455.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Election_MG_3455.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy", "summary": "Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to choose their governing legislation. Who people are and how authority is shared among them are core issues for democratic theory, development and constitution. Cornerstones include freedom of assembly and speech, inclusiveness and equality, membership, consent, voting, right to life and minority rights." }, { "page": "Dictatorship", "title": "Dictatorship", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b1/Hitlermusso2_edit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hitlermusso2_edit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship", "summary": " A dictatorship is a form of government characterized by a single leader or group of leaders and little or no toleration for political pluralism or independent programs or media. According to other definitions, democracies are regimes in which \"those who govern are selected through contested elections\"; therefore dictatorships are \"not democracies\". With the advent of the 19th and 20th centuries, dictatorships and constitutional democracies emerged as the world's two major forms of government, gradually eliminating monarchies, one of the traditional widespread forms of government of the time. Typically, in a dictatorial regime, the leader of the country is identified with the title of dictator, although their formal title may more closely resemble something similar to \"leader\". A common aspect that characterized dictatorship is taking advantage of their strong personality, usually by suppressing freedom of thought and speech of the masses, in order to maintain complete political and social supremacy and stability. Dictatorships and totalitarian societies generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative governing systems." }, { "page": "Monarchy", "title": "Monarchy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Forms_of_government.svg/921px-Forms_of_government.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/921px-Forms_of_government.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy", "summary": "A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to restricted, to fully autocratic, and can expand across the domains of the executive, legislative and judicial. A monarchy can be a polity through unity, personal union, vassalage or federation, and monarchs can carry various titles such as king, queen, emperor, Raja, khan, caliph, tsar, sultan, or shah." }, { "page": "Theocracy", "title": "Theocracy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Augusto_come_giove%2C_00-50_dc_circa.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Augusto_come_giove%2C_00-50_dc_circa.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracy", "summary": "Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity of some type is recognized as the supreme ruling authority, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries that manage the day-to-day affairs of the government." }, { "page": "Ideology", "title": "Ideology", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology", "summary": "An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially as held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which \"practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones.\" Formerly applied primarily to economic, political, or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory." }, { "page": "Anarchism", "title": "Anarchism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism", "summary": "Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement which is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful. It is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism." }, { "page": "Communism", "title": "Communism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism", "summary": "Communism is a philosophical, social, political, economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of a communist society, namely a socioeconomic order structured upon the ideas of common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state." }, { "page": "Conservatism", "title": "Conservatism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism", "summary": "Conservatism is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The central tenets of conservatism include tradition, hierarchy, and authority, as established in respective cultures, as well as property rights. Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as organized religion, parliamentary government, and property rights, with the aim of emphasizing continuity. Adherents of conservatism often oppose modernism and seek a return to \"the way things were\"." }, { "page": "Fascism", "title": "Fascism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism", "summary": "Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition and strong regimentation of society and of the economy which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, before spreading to other European countries. Opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is placed on the far right within the traditional left–right spectrum." }, { "page": "Liberalism", "title": "Liberalism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism", "summary": "Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support free markets, free trade, limited government, individual rights, capitalism, democracy, secularism, gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of religion. Yellow is the political colour most commonly associated with liberalism." }, { "page": "Nationalism", "title": "Nationalism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism", "summary": "Nationalism is an idea and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics, religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national unity or solidarity. Nationalism seeks to preserve and foster a nation's traditional cultures and cultural revivals have been associated with nationalist movements. It also encourages pride in national achievements and is closely linked to patriotism. Nationalism is often combined with other ideologies such as conservatism or socialism." }, { "page": "Socialism", "title": "Socialism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism", "summary": "Socialism is a political, social and economic philosophy encompassing a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production and workers' self-management of enterprises. It includes the political theories and movements associated with such systems. Social ownership can be public, collective, cooperative or of equity. While no single definition encapsulates many types of socialism, social ownership is the one common element." }, { "page": "State_(polity)", "title": "State (polity)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Leviathan_by_Thomas_Hobbes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Leviathan_by_Thomas_Hobbes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)", "summary": "A state is a polity under a system of governance. There is no undisputed definition of a state. A widely used definition from the German sociologist Max Weber is that a \"state\" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are not uncommon." }, { "page": "Diplomacy", "title": "Diplomacy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/UN_HQ_157652121_5b5979da9e2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/UN_HQ_157652121_5b5979da9e2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomacy", "summary": "Diplomacy is the practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states or groups, so as to influence the decisions and conduct of foreign governments through dialogue, negotiation, and other nonviolent means. Diplomacy usually refers to international relations carried out through the intercession of professional diplomats with regard to a full range of topical issues." }, { "page": "Military", "title": "Military", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/141113-A-QS211-509_-_Soldiers_of_the_1st_Brigade_Combat_Team%2C_1st_Cavalry_Division%2C_and_2nd_Cavalry_Regiment_participate_in_the_closing_ceremony_for_Iron_Sword_2014.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/141113-A-QS211-509_-_Soldiers_of_the_1st_Brigade_Combat_Team%2C_1st_Cavalry_Division%2C_and_2nd_Cavalry_Regiment_participate_in_the_closing_ceremony_for_Iron_Sword_2014.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military", "summary": "A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically officially authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct military uniform. It may consist of one or more military branches such as an army, navy, air force, space force, marines, or coast guard. The main task of the military is usually defined as defence of the state and its interests against external armed threats." }, { "page": "European_Union", "title": "European Union", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/810px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/810px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union", "summary": "The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. Its members have a combined area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where members have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. A monetary union was established in 1999, coming into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity." }, { "page": "European_Union", "title": "European Union", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/810px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/810px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union", "summary": "The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. Its members have a combined area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where members have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. A monetary union was established in 1999, coming into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity." }, { "page": "International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement", "title": "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Croixrouge_logos.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Croixrouge_logos.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement", "summary": "The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is an international humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million volunteers, members and staff worldwide, which was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for all human beings, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering. Within three distinct organizations that are legally independent from each other, but are united within the movement through common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes and governing organisations, there are the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), that is a private humanitarian institution founded in 1863 in Geneva, Switzerland, in particular by Henry Dunant and Gustave Moynier. Its 25-member committee has a unique authority under international humanitarian law to protect the life and dignity of the victims of international and internal armed conflicts. The ICRC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on three occasions." }, { "page": "NATO", "title": "NATO", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NATO_OTAN_landscape_logo.svg/917px-NATO_OTAN_landscape_logo.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/917px-NATO_OTAN_landscape_logo.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO", "summary": "The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium." }, { "page": "United_Nations", "title": "United Nations", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/1200px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations", "summary": "The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations. It is the largest, most familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world. The UN is headquartered on international territory in New York City, with its other main offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna and The Hague." }, { "page": "International_Monetary_Fund", "title": "International Monetary Fund", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7e/International_Monetary_Fund_logo.svg/313px-International_Monetary_Fund_logo.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/313px-International_Monetary_Fund_logo.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund", "summary": "The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world while periodically depending on the World Bank for its resources. Formed in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international payment system. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had XDR 477 billion." }, { "page": "World_Health_Organization", "title": "World Health Organization", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg/512px-Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization", "summary": "The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as \"the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health.\" It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with six semi-autonomous regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide." }, { "page": "World_Trade_Organization", "title": "World Trade Organization", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/WTO_members_and_observers.svg/2754px-WTO_members_and_observers.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2754px-WTO_members_and_observers.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization", "summary": "The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. It is the largest international economic organization in the world." } ], "Conflict": [ { "page": "Genocide", "title": "Genocide", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide", "summary": "Genocide is the intentional action to destroy a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. A term coined by Raphael Lemkin in his 1944 book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, the hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word γένος and the Latin suffix -caedo." }, { "page": "Peace", "title": "Peace", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Eir%C3%A9n%C3%A9_et_Ploutos.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Eir%C3%A9n%C3%A9_et_Ploutos.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace", "summary": "Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. Throughout history leaders have used peacemaking and diplomacy to establish a certain type of behavioral restraint that has resulted in the establishment of regional peace or economic growth through various forms of agreements or peace treaties. Such behavioral restraint has often resulted in the reduction of conflicts, greater economic interactivity, and consequently substantial prosperity." }, { "page": "Terrorism", "title": "Terrorism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/UA_Flight_175_hits_WTC_south_tower_9-11_edit.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/UA_Flight_175_hits_WTC_south_tower_9-11_edit.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism", "summary": "Terrorism is, in the broadest sense, the use of intentional violence for political or religious purposes. It is used in this regard primarily to refer to violence during peacetime or in the context of war against non-combatants. The terms \"terrorist\" and \"terrorism\" originated during the French Revolution of the late 18th century but gained mainstream popularity in the 1970s during the conflicts of Northern Ireland, the Basque Country and Palestine. The increased use of suicide attacks from the 1980s onwards was typified by the September 11 attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C. in 2001." }, { "page": "War", "title": "War", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01a.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01a.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War", "summary": "War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties." } ], "Education": [ { "page": "Education", "title": "Education", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/FBE_CTU_lecture.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/FBE_CTU_lecture.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education", "summary": "Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners can also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy." }, { "page": "School", "title": "School", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Larkmead_School%2C_Abingdon%2C_Oxfordshire.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Larkmead_School%2C_Abingdon%2C_Oxfordshire.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School", "summary": "A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools. The names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is commonly called a university college or university, but these higher education institutions are usually not compulsory." }, { "page": "Library", "title": "Library", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Biblioth%C3%A8que_de_l'Assembl%C3%A9e_Nationale_%28Lunon%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Biblioth%C3%A8que_de_l'Assembl%C3%A9e_Nationale_%28Lunon%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library", "summary": "A library is a curated collection of sources of information and similar resources, selected by experts and made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing, often in a quiet environment conducive to study. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical location or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audiobooks, databases, table games, video games and other formats. Libraries range widely in size up to millions of items. The word for \"library\" in many modern languages is derived from Ancient Greek βιβλιοθήκη (bibliothēkē), originally meaning bookcase, via Latin bibliotheca." } ], "Business and economics": [ { "page": "Business", "title": "Business", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business", "summary": "Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products. Simply put, it is \"any activity or enterprise entered into for profit. It does not mean it is a company, a corporation, partnership, or have any such formal organization, but it can range from a street peddler to General Motors.\"" }, { "page": "Corporation", "title": "Corporation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/New_McDonald's_restaurant_in_Mount_Pleasant%2C_Iowa.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/New_McDonald's_restaurant_in_Mount_Pleasant%2C_Iowa.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation", "summary": "A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law for certain purposes. Early incorporated entities were established by charter. Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered based on two aspects: by whether they can issue stock, or by whether they are formed to make a profit. Depending on the number of owners, a corporation can be classified as aggregate or sole." }, { "page": "Management", "title": "Management", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/USCG_Org_Chart.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/USCG_Org_Chart.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management", "summary": "Management is the administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the efforts of its employees to accomplish its objectives through the application of available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. The term \"management\" may also refer to those people who manage an organization - managers." }, { "page": "Marketing", "title": "Marketing", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing", "summary": "Marketing is profitably using the results of studying short term and long term needs of those who can pay for a one-time, or in most cases, a steady flow of service or product placement. In 2017 The New York Times described it as \"the art of telling stories so enthralling that people lose track of their wallets." }, { "page": "Retail", "title": "Retail", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Saluhallen_i_Helsingfors_%282%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Saluhallen_i_Helsingfors_%282%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail", "summary": "Retail is the process of selling consumer goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand identified through a supply chain. The term \"retailer\" is typically applied where a service provider fills the small orders of many individuals, who are end-users, rather than large orders of a small number of wholesale, corporate or government clientele. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products. Sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing; sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing: it does not always result in a purchase." }, { "page": "Trade_union", "title": "Trade union", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union", "summary": "A trade union is an association of workers forming a legal unit or legal personhood, usually called a \"bargaining unit\", which acts as bargaining agent and legal representative for a unit of employees in all matters of law or right arising from or in the administration of a collective agreement. Labour unions typically fund the formal organization, head office, and legal team functions of the labour union through regular fees or union dues. The delegate staff of the labour union representation in the workforce are made up of workplace volunteers who are appointed by members in democratic elections." }, { "page": "Economics", "title": "Economics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/217px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/217px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics", "summary": "Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with things of value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services." }, { "page": "Trade", "title": "Trade", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kaufmann-1568.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kaufmann-1568.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade", "summary": "Trade involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market." }, { "page": "Capitalism", "title": "Capitalism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism", "summary": "Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, a price system, private property and the recognition of property rights, voluntary exchange and wage labor. In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in capital and financial markets whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets." }, { "page": "Employment", "title": "Employment", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment", "summary": "Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually based on contract where work is paid for, where one party, which may be a corporation, for profit, not-for-profit organization, co-operative or other entity is the employer and the other is the employee. Employees work in return for payment, which may be in the form of an hourly wage, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does or which sector they are working in. Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, organisation or legal contracts." }, { "page": "Finance", "title": "Finance", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Philippine-stock-market-board.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philippine-stock-market-board.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance", "summary": "Finance is a term for matters regarding the management, creation, and study of money and investments. Specifically, it deals with the questions of how and why an individual, company or government acquires the money needed – called capital in the company context – and how they spend or invest that money. Finance is then often split per the following major categories: corporate finance, personal finance and public finance." }, { "page": "Bank", "title": "Bank", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/London.bankofengland.arp.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/London.bankofengland.arp.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank", "summary": "A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be performed either directly or indirectly through capital markets." }, { "page": "Money", "title": "Money", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money", "summary": "Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts, such as taxes, in a particular country or socio-economic context. The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment. Any item or verifiable record that fulfils these functions can be considered as money." }, { "page": "Macroeconomics", "title": "Macroeconomics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Economics_circular_flow_cartoon.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Economics_circular_flow_cartoon.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics", "summary": "Macroeconomics means using interest rates, taxes and government spending to regulate an economy’s growth and stability. It is a branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of an economy as a whole. This includes regional, national, and global economies. Macroeconomists study topics such as GDP, unemployment rates, national income, price indices, output, consumption, unemployment, inflation, saving, investment, energy, international trade, and international finance." }, { "page": "Microeconomics", "title": "Microeconomics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Delhi_main_bazaar.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Delhi_main_bazaar.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomics", "summary": "Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources and the interactions among these individuals and firms." }, { "page": "Market_(economics)", "title": "Market (economics)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Philippine-stock-market-board.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Philippine-stock-market-board.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)", "summary": "A market is one of a composition of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations or infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services in exchange for money from buyers. It can be said that a market is the process by which the prices of goods and services are established. Markets facilitate trade and enable the distribution and resource allocation in a society. Markets allow any trade-able item to be evaluated and priced. A market emerges more or less spontaneously or may be constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights of services and goods. Markets generally supplant gift economies and are often held in place through rules and customs, such as a booth fee, competitive pricing, and source of goods for sale." }, { "page": "Supply_and_demand", "title": "Supply and demand", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Money-2180330_1920.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand", "summary": "In microeconomics, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. It postulates that, holding all else equal, in a competitive market, the unit price for a particular good, or other traded item such as labor or liquid financial assets, will vary until it settles at a point where the quantity demanded will equal the quantity supplied, resulting in an economic equilibrium for price and quantity transacted." }, { "page": "Tax", "title": "Tax", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Total-tax-revenues-gdp.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Total-tax-revenues-gdp.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax", "summary": "A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a taxpayer by a governmental organization in order to fund government spending and various public expenditures. A failure to pay, along with evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent. The first known taxation took place in Ancient Egypt around 3000–2800 BC." }, { "page": "Economy", "title": "Economy", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy", "summary": "An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services by different agents. Understood in its broadest sense, 'The economy is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the production, use, and management of resources'. A given economy is the result of a set of processes that involves its culture, values, education, technological evolution, history, social organization, political structure and legal systems, as well as its geography, natural resource endowment, and ecology, as main factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions. In other words, the economic domain is a social domain of human practices and transactions. It does not stand alone." }, { "page": "Agriculture", "title": "Agriculture", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture", "summary": "Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first." }, { "page": "Manufacturing", "title": "Manufacturing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Product%E2%80%99s_lifecycle-es.svg/689px-Product%E2%80%99s_lifecycle-es.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/689px-Product%E2%80%99s_lifecycle-es.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing", "summary": "Manufacturing is the production of products for use or sale, using labor and machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of secondary industry. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high-tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial design, in which raw materials from primary industry are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products, or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers." }, { "page": "Construction", "title": "Construction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Construction_site_in_Cologne%2C_Germany_%282017%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Construction_site_in_Cologne%2C_Germany_%282017%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction", "summary": "Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations, and comes from Latin constructio and Old French construction. To construct is the verb: the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built, the nature of its structure." }, { "page": "Fishing", "title": "Fishing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Stilts_fishermen_Sri_Lanka_02.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Stilts_fishermen_Sri_Lanka_02.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing", "summary": "Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. “Fishing” may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. In addition to being caught to be eaten, fish are caught as recreational pastimes. Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept as preserved or living trophies. When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released." }, { "page": "Hunting", "title": "Hunting", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Paul_Childerley_driven_hunt_Finland_04.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Paul_Childerley_driven_hunt_Finland_04.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting", "summary": "Hunting is the practice of seeking, pursuing and capturing or killing wild animals. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for meat, recreation, to remove predators that can be dangerous to humans or domestic animals, to remove pests that destroy crops or kill livestock, or for trade. Many non-human species also hunt - see predation." }, { "page": "Mining", "title": "Mining", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Kalgoorlie_open_cast_mine.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kalgoorlie_open_cast_mine.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining", "summary": "Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposit. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner." } ], "Social issues": [ { "page": "Abortion", "title": "Abortion", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion", "summary": "Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or \"spontaneous abortion\" and occurs in approximately 30% to 50% of pregnancies. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an induced abortion, or less frequently \"induced miscarriage\". The unmodified word abortion generally refers to an induced abortion." }, { "page": "Disability", "title": "Disability", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg/451px-Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/451px-Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability", "summary": "A disability is any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or interact with the world around them. These conditions, or impairments, may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of multiple factors. Impairments causing disability may be present from birth or occur during a person's lifetime. The World Health Organization proposes the following definition of disabilities:\"Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Disability is thus not just a health problem. It is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives.\"" }, { "page": "Discrimination", "title": "Discrimination", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/%22Colored%22_drinking_fountain_from_mid-20th_century_with_african-american_drinking.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%22Colored%22_drinking_fountain_from_mid-20th_century_with_african-american_drinking.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination", "summary": "Discrimination is the act of making distinctions between human beings based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they are perceived to belong. People may discriminate on the basis of age, caste, criminal record, height, weight, physical appearance, disability, family status, gender identity, gender expression, generation, genetic characteristics, marital status, nationality, profession, color, race and ethnicity, religion, sex and sex characteristics, sexual orientation, political ideology, social class, personality, as well as other categories. Discrimination especially occurs when individuals or groups are treated \"in a way which is worse than the way people are usually treated,\" on the basis of their actual or perceived membership in certain groups or social categories. It involves the group's initial reaction or interaction going on to influence the individual's actual behavior towards the group's leader or the group, restricting members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group, leading to the exclusion of the individual or entities based on illogical or irrational decision-making." }, { "page": "Racism", "title": "Racism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism", "summary": "Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity. Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities." }, { "page": "Sexism", "title": "Sexism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism", "summary": "Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism, and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality. It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms." }, { "page": "Environmentalism", "title": "Environmentalism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism", "summary": "\n\nEnvironmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the impact of changes to the environment on humans, animals, plants and non-living matter. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecology combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism." }, { "page": "Pollution", "title": "Pollution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Air_pollution_control_rto.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Air_pollution_control_rto.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution", "summary": "Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015, pollution killed 9 million people worldwide." }, { "page": "Famine", "title": "Famine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine", "summary": "A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century, it was generally Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe that suffered the most deaths from famine. The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 2000s." }, { "page": "Feminism", "title": "Feminism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/8M_Paran%C3%A1_2019_13.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/8M_Paran%C3%A1_2019_13.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism", "summary": "Feminism is a range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that women are treated unjustly within those societies. Efforts to change that include fighting against gender stereotypes and establishing educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women that are equal to those for men." }, { "page": "Women%27s_suffrage", "title": "Women's suffrage", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Official_program_-_Woman_suffrage_procession_March_3%2C_1913_-_crop.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Official_program_-_Woman_suffrage_procession_March_3%2C_1913_-_crop.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_suffrage", "summary": "Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the mid-19th century, aside from the work being done by women for broad-based economic and political equality and for social reforms, women sought to change voting laws to allow them to vote. National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts towards that objective, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, as well as for equal civil rights for women." }, { "page": "Globalization", "title": "Globalization", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization", "summary": "Globalization, or globalisation, is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. Globalization has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances in transportation and communication technology. This increase in global interactions has caused a growth in international trade and the exchange of ideas and culture. Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects. However, conflicts and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern globalization." }, { "page": "Human_migration", "title": "Human migration", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Annual_Net_Migration_Rate_2015%E2%80%932020.svg/2754px-Annual_Net_Migration_Rate_2015%E2%80%932020.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2754px-Annual_Net_Migration_Rate_2015%E2%80%932020.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration", "summary": "Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another \nwith intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration." }, { "page": "Human_rights", "title": "Human rights", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Magna_Carta_%28British_Library_Cotton_MS_Augustus_II.106%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Magna_Carta_%28British_Library_Cotton_MS_Augustus_II.106%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights", "summary": "Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances." }, { "page": "Liberty", "title": "Liberty", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Statue_of_Liberty_7.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Statue_of_Liberty_7.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty", "summary": "Broadly speaking, liberty is the ability to do as one pleases. It is a synonym for the word freedom. In modern politics, liberty is the state of being free within society from control or oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behaviour, or political views. In philosophy, liberty involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of \"sin, spiritual servitude, [or] worldly ties\".\nSometimes liberty is differentiated from freedom by using the word \"freedom\" primarily, if not exclusively, to mean the ability to do as one wills and what one has the power to do; and using the word \"liberty\" to mean the absence of arbitrary restraints, taking into account the rights of all involved. In this sense, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Thus liberty entails the responsible use of freedom under the rule of law without depriving anyone else of their freedom. Freedom is more broad in that it represents a total lack of restraint or the unrestrained ability to fulfill one's desires. For example, a person can have the freedom to murder, but not have the liberty to murder, as the latter example deprives others of their right not to be harmed. Liberty can be taken away as a form of punishment. In many countries, people can be deprived of their liberty if they are convicted of criminal acts." }, { "page": "Privacy", "title": "Privacy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Surveillance_cameras.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Surveillance_cameras.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy", "summary": "Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively." }, { "page": "Slavery", "title": "Slavery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery", "summary": "Slavery and enslavement are the state and condition of being a slave, who is someone forbidden to quit their service to another person and is treated like property. In chattel slavery, the enslaved person is legally rendered the personal property (chattel) of the slave owner. In economics, the term de facto slavery describes the conditions of unfree labour and forced labour that most slaves endure. In the course of human history, slavery was often a feature of civilisation and legal in most societies, but is now outlawed in all countries of the world, except as punishment for crime." }, { "page": "Social_equality", "title": "Social equality", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equality", "summary": "Social equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in possibly all respects, possibly including civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights and equal access to certain social goods and social services. However, it may also include health equality, economic equality and other social securities. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced social class or caste boundaries and the absence of discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity. For example, sex, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, origin, caste or class, income or property, language, religion, convictions, opinions, health or disability must absolutely not result in unequal treatment under the law and should not reduce opportunities unjustifiably." }, { "page": "Indigenous_peoples", "title": "Indigenous peoples", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Guarani_Family.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Guarani_Family.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples", "summary": "Indigenous peoples, also referred to as First peoples, First Nations, Aboriginal peoples, Native peoples, or autochthonous peoples, are ethnic groups who are native to a particular place on Earth and live or lived in an interconnected relationship with the natural environment there for many generations prior to the arrival of non-Indigenous peoples. Indigenous first emerged as a way for European colonizers to differentiate enslaved Black people from the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, being first used in its modern context in 1646 by Sir Thomas Browne, who stated \"Although... there bee... swarms of Negroes serving the Spaniard, yet they were all transported from Africa... and are not indigenous or proper natives of America.\"" }, { "page": "Poverty", "title": "Poverty", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Homeless_man_in_Toronto_across_from_old_City_Hall.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Homeless_man_in_Toronto_across_from_old_City_Hall.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty", "summary": "Poverty is not having enough material possessions or income for a person's basic needs. Poverty may include social, economic, and political elements. Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter. The floor at which absolute poverty is defined is always about the same, independent of the person's permanent location or era. On the other hand, relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. Therefore, the floor at which relative poverty is defined varies from one country to another, or from one society to another. For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields." }, { "page": "Suicide", "title": "Suicide", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/%C3%89douard_Manet_-_Le_Suicid%C3%A9_%28ca._1877%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%C3%89douard_Manet_-_Le_Suicid%C3%A9_%28ca._1877%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide", "summary": "Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders—including depression, bipolar disorder, autism, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders, physical disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome, and substance abuse—including alcoholism and the use of and withdrawal from benzodiazepines—are risk factors. Some suicides are impulsive acts due to stress, relationship problems, or harassment/bullying. Those who have previously attempted suicide are at a higher risk for future attempts. Effective suicide prevention efforts include limiting access to methods of suicide—such as firearms, drugs, and poisons; treating mental disorders and substance misuse; careful media reporting about suicide; and improving economic conditions. Even though crisis hotlines are common, they have not been well studied." }, { "page": "Welfare", "title": "Welfare", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Bian_V'nu_Saint_Pi%C3%A8rre_Port_Dg%C3%A8rn%C3%A9sy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bian_V'nu_Saint_Pi%C3%A8rre_Port_Dg%C3%A8rn%C3%A9sy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare", "summary": "Welfare is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance programs, which provide support only to those who have previously contributed, as opposed to social assistance programs, which provide support on the basis of need alone. The International Labour Organization defines social security as covering support for those in old age, support for the maintenance of children, medical treatment, parental and sick leave, unemployment and disability benefits, and support for sufferers of occupational injury." } ], "Law": [ { "page": "Law", "title": "Law", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Statua_Iustitiae.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Statua_Iustitiae.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law", "summary": "Law commonly refers to a system of rules created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent, usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people." }, { "page": "Crime", "title": "Crime", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime", "summary": "In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law." }, { "page": "Constitution", "title": "Constitution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Constitution_de_l'an_XII._Page_1_-_Archives_Nationales_-_AE-II-1512.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Constitution_de_l'an_XII._Page_1_-_Archives_Nationales_-_AE-II-1512.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution", "summary": "A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed." }, { "page": "Justice", "title": "Justice", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Iustitia_van_Heemskerck.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Iustitia_van_Heemskerck.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice", "summary": "Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes \"deserving\" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspectives, including the concepts of moral correctness based on ethics, rationality, law, religion, equity and fairness." }, { "page": "Police", "title": "Police", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/HH_Polizeihauptmeister_MZ.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/HH_Polizeihauptmeister_MZ.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police", "summary": "The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state, with the aim to enforce the law, to ensure the safety, health and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder. Their lawful powers include arrest and the use of force legitimized by the state via the monopoly on violence. The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing. Police forces are usually public sector services, funded through taxes." }, { "page": "Property", "title": "Property", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property", "summary": "Property in the abstract is what belongs to or with something, whether as an attribute or as a component of said thing. In the context of this article, it is one or more components, whether physical or incorporeal, of a person's estate; or so belonging to, as in being owned by, a person or jointly a group of people or a legal entity like a corporation or even a society. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property has the right to consume, alter, share, redefine, rent, mortgage, pawn, sell, exchange, transfer, give away or destroy it, or to exclude others from doing these things, as well as to perhaps abandon it; whereas regardless of the nature of the property, the owner thereof has the right to properly use it, or at the very least exclusively keep it." } ], "Psychology": [ { "page": "Psychology", "title": "Psychology", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology", "summary": "Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. It is an academic discipline of immense scope. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, and all the variety of phenomena linked to those emergent properties, joining this way the broader neuro-scientific group of researchers. As a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases." }, { "page": "Emotion", "title": "Emotion", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion", "summary": "Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity and motivation." }, { "page": "Anger", "title": "Anger", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger", "summary": "Anger, also known as wrath or rage, is an intense emotional state involving a strong uncomfortable and non-cooperative response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat." }, { "page": "Fear", "title": "Fear", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Scared_Child_at_Nighttime.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Scared_Child_at_Nighttime.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear", "summary": "Fear is an emotion induced by perceived danger or threat, which causes physiological changes and ultimately behavioral changes, such as fleeing, hiding, or freezing from perceived traumatic events. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, which in extreme cases of fear can be a freeze response or paralysis." }, { "page": "Happiness", "title": "Happiness", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/My_Grandfather_Photo_from_January_17.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/My_Grandfather_Photo_from_January_17.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness", "summary": "The term happiness is used in the context of mental or emotional states, including positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. It is also used in the context of life satisfaction, subjective well-being, eudaimonia, flourishing and well-being." }, { "page": "Humour", "title": "Humour", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Volunteer_Community_Relations_DVIDS190255.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Volunteer_Community_Relations_DVIDS190255.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humour", "summary": "Humour or humor is the tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humours, controlled human health and emotion." }, { "page": "Love", "title": "Love", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love", "summary": "Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection and to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love of food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment." }, { "page": "Mind", "title": "Mind", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Phrenology1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Phrenology1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind", "summary": "The mind is the set of faculties including cognitive aspects such as consciousness, imagination, perception, thinking, intelligence, judgement, language and memory, as well as noncognitive aspects such as emotion and instinct. Under the scientific physicalist interpretation, the mind is produced at least in part by the brain. The primary competitors to the physicalist interpretations of the mind are idealism, substance dualism, and types of property dualism, and by some lights eliminative materialism and anomalous monism. There is a lengthy tradition in philosophy, religion, psychology, and cognitive science about what constitutes a mind and what are its distinguishing properties." }, { "page": "Consciousness", "title": "Consciousness", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/RobertFuddBewusstsein17Jh.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/RobertFuddBewusstsein17Jh.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness", "summary": "Consciousness at its simplest is \"sentience or awareness of internal or external existence\". Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial, being \"at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives\". Perhaps the only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as consciousness. Sometimes, it is synonymous with 'the mind', other times, an aspect of it. In the past it was one's \"inner life\", the world of introspection, of private thought, imagination and volition. Today, with modern research into the brain it often includes any kind of experience, cognition, feeling or perception. It may be 'awareness', or 'awareness of awareness', or self-awareness. There might be different levels or orders of consciousness, or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features. Other questions include whether only humans are conscious or all animals or even the whole universe. The disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises doubts whether the right questions are being asked." }, { "page": "Dream", "title": "Dream", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Antonio_de_Pereda_-_El_sue%C3%B1o_del_caballero_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Antonio_de_Pereda_-_El_sue%C3%B1o_del_caballero_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream", "summary": "A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. The content and purpose of dreams are not fully understood, although they have been a topic of scientific, philosophical and religious interest throughout recorded history. Dream interpretation is the attempt at drawing meaning from dreams and searching for an underlying message. The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology." }, { "page": "Memory", "title": "Memory", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Memory.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Memory.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory", "summary": "Memory is the faculty of the brain by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to develop. Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia." }, { "page": "Thought", "title": "Thought", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Almeida_J%C3%BAnior_-_Mo%C3%A7a_com_Livro.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Almeida_J%C3%BAnior_-_Mo%C3%A7a_com_Livro.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought", "summary": "Thought encompasses an \"aim-oriented flow of ideas and associations that can lead to a reality-oriented conclusion\". Although thinking is an activity of an existential value for humans, there is still no consensus as to how it is adequately defined or understood." }, { "page": "Human_behavior", "title": "Human behavior", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior", "summary": "Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity of human individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their life. While specific traits of one's personality, temperament, and genetics may be more consistent, other behaviors will change as one moves along different stages of their life, i.e. from birth through adolescence, adulthood, and, for example, parenthood and retirement." }, { "page": "Intelligence", "title": "Intelligence", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence", "summary": "Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. More generally, it can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context." }, { "page": "Learning", "title": "Learning", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Children_in_rural_school.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Children_in_rural_school.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning", "summary": "Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event, but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be \"lost\" from that which cannot be retrieved." }, { "page": "Personality", "title": "Personality", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality", "summary": "Personality is defined as the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment. Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell, define personality as the traits that predict a person's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable." } ], "Language": [ { "page": "Language", "title": "Language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language", "summary": "A language is a structured system of communication. Language, in a broader sense, is the method of communication that involves the use of – particularly human – languages." }, { "page": "Arabic", "title": "Arabic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg/343px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/343px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic", "summary": "Arabic is a Semitic language that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living in the area bounded by Mesopotamia in the east and the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in Northwestern Arabia and in the Sinai Peninsula. The ISO assigns language codes to thirty varieties of Arabic, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ)." }, { "page": "Arabic", "title": "Arabic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg/343px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/343px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic", "summary": "Arabic is a Semitic language that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living in the area bounded by Mesopotamia in the east and the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in Northwestern Arabia and in the Sinai Peninsula. The ISO assigns language codes to thirty varieties of Arabic, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ)." }, { "page": "Indo-European_languages", "title": "Indo-European languages", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Indo-European_branches_map.svg/400px-Indo-European_branches_map.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/400px-Indo-European_branches_map.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages", "summary": "The Indo-European languages are a large language family native to western Eurasia. It comprises most of the languages of Europe together with those of the northern Indian Subcontinent and the Iranian Plateau. A few of these languages, such as English, Portuguese and Spanish, have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across all continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, the largest of which are the Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Romance, and Balto-Slavic groups. The most populous individual languages within them are Spanish, English, Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Portuguese, Bengali, Punjabi, and Russian, each with over 100 million speakers. German, French, Marathi, Italian, and Persian have more than 50 million each. In total, 46% of the world's population speaks an Indo-European language as a first language, by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to the estimate by Ethnologue, with over two thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch." }, { "page": "Bengali_language", "title": "Bengali language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.svg/375px-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/375px-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language", "summary": "Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language and the lingua franca of the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent, spoken by the Bengalis in Bangladesh and India. It is the most widely spoken language of Bangladesh and second most widely spoken of the 22 scheduled languages of India, after Hindi. With approximately 228 million native speakers and another 37 million as second language speakers, Bengali is the fifth most-spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world." }, { "page": "English_language", "title": "English language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/English_language_distribution.svg/512px-English_language_distribution.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-English_language_distribution.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language", "summary": "English is a West Germanic language first spoken in early medieval England which eventually became the leading language of international discourse in today's world. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the area of Great Britain that later took their name, England. Both names derive from Anglia, a peninsula on the Baltic Sea. English is most closely related to Frisian and Low Saxon, while its vocabulary has been significantly influenced by other Germanic languages, particularly Old Norse, as well as Latin and French." }, { "page": "French_language", "title": "French language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/New-Map-Francophone_World.svg/863px-New-Map-Francophone_World.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/863px-New-Map-Francophone_World.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language", "summary": "French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages. French evolved from Gallo-Romance, the Latin spoken in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to France's past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French." }, { "page": "German_language", "title": "German language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Legal_statuses_of_German_in_the_world.svg/1326px-Legal_statuses_of_German_in_the_world.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1326px-Legal_statuses_of_German_in_the_world.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language", "summary": "German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official or co-official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol in Italy, the German-speaking Community of Belgium, and Liechtenstein. It is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg and a co-official language in the Opole Voivodeship in Poland. The German language is most similar to other languages within the West Germanic language branch, including Afrikaans, Dutch, English, the Frisian languages, Low German/Low Saxon, Luxembourgish, and Yiddish. It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, although they belong to the North Germanic group. German is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English." }, { "page": "Greek_language", "title": "Greek language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Homer_British_Museum.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Homer_British_Museum.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language", "summary": "Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, Albania, other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,500 years of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems." }, { "page": "Hindustani_language", "title": "Hindustani language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Hindustani0804.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hindustani0804.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_language", "summary": "Hindustani is the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan; known in its literary forms as Hindi–Urdu and historically as Hindui, Hindavi, and later as Rekhta, Dehlavi, Hindi, and Urdu. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving its base primarily from the Western Hindi dialect of Delhi, also known as Khariboli. Hindustani is a pluricentric language, with two standardised registers, Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu." }, { "page": "Latin", "title": "Latin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin", "summary": "Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire. Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. It is the official language in the Holy See." }, { "page": "Portuguese_language", "title": "Portuguese language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Map_of_the_portuguese_language_in_the_world.svg/1498px-Map_of_the_portuguese_language_in_the_world.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1498px-Map_of_the_portuguese_language_in_the_world.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language", "summary": "Portuguese is a Western Romance language originating in the Iberian Peninsula of Europe. It is the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea and Macau. A Portuguese-speaking person or nation is referred to as \"Lusophone\" (Lusófono). As the result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese and Portuguese creole speakers are also found around the world." }, { "page": "Russian_language", "title": "Russian language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Idioma_ruso.PNG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Idioma_ruso.PNG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language", "summary": "Russian is an East Slavic language native to the Russians in Eastern Europe. It is an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, as well as being widely used throughout the Baltic states, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages, one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages alongside, and part of the larger Balto-Slavic branch. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian." }, { "page": "Spanish_language", "title": "Spanish language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Hispanophone_global_world_map_language_2.svg/512px-Hispanophone_global_world_map_language_2.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Hispanophone_global_world_map_language_2.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language", "summary": "Spanish or Castilian is a Romance language that originated in the Iberian Peninsula of Europe and today is a global language with more than 483 million native speakers, mainly in Spain and the Americas. It is the world's second-most spoken native language, after Mandarin Chinese, and the world's fourth-most spoken language, after English, Mandarin Chinese and Hindi." }, { "page": "Chinese_language", "title": "Chinese language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chineselanguage.svg/512px-Chineselanguage.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Chineselanguage.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language", "summary": "Chinese is a family of East Asian analytic languages that form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages. Chinese languages are spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China. About 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language." }, { "page": "Chinese_language", "title": "Chinese language", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chineselanguage.svg/512px-Chineselanguage.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Chineselanguage.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language", "summary": "Chinese is a family of East Asian analytic languages that form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages. Chinese languages are spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China. About 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language." }, { "page": "Japanese_language", "title": "Japanese language", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language", "summary": "Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 128 million people, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, and its relation to other languages, such as Korean, is debated. Japonic languages have been grouped with other language families such as Ainu, Austroasiatic, and the now-discredited Altaic, but none of these proposals has gained widespread acceptance." }, { "page": "Japanese_language", "title": "Japanese language", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language", "summary": "Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 128 million people, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, and its relation to other languages, such as Korean, is debated. Japonic languages have been grouped with other language families such as Ainu, Austroasiatic, and the now-discredited Altaic, but none of these proposals has gained widespread acceptance." }, { "page": "Linguistics", "title": "Linguistics", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics", "summary": "Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves the analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical, and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and language-based context is often determined. Research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focuses on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time." }, { "page": "Grammar", "title": "Grammar", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar", "summary": "In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases and words in a natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules and this field includes phonology, morphology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, semantics and pragmatics." }, { "page": "Word", "title": "Word", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word", "summary": "In linguistics, a word of a spoken language can be defined as the smallest sequence of phonemes that can be uttered in isolation with objective or practical meaning. Or in other terms, a word is a combination of letters. For many languages, words also correspond to sequences of graphemes (\"letters\") in their standard writing systems that are delimited by spaces wider than the normal inter-letter space, or by other graphical conventions. The concept of \"word\" is usually distinguished from that of a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of speech which has a meaning, even if it will not stand on its own." }, { "page": "Personal_name", "title": "Personal name", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/FML_names-2.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/FML_names-2.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_name", "summary": "A personal name or full name is the set of names by which an individual is known and that can be recited as a word-group, with the understanding that, taken together, they all relate to that one individual. In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. The academic study of personal names is called anthroponymy." }, { "page": "Speech", "title": "Speech", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28English%29.ogv/256px--Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28English%29.ogv.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/256px--Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28English%29.ogv.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech", "summary": "Speech is human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words, and using those words in their semantic character as words in the lexicon of a language according to the syntactic constraints that govern lexical words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different intentional speech acts, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing, and can use enunciation, intonation, degrees of loudness, tempo, and other non-representational or paralinguistic aspects of vocalization to convey meaning. In their speech speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social position such as sex, age, place of origin, physical states, psychic states, physico-psychic states, education or experience, and the like." }, { "page": "Writing", "title": "Writing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rosetta_Stone.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing", "summary": "Writing is a medium of human communication that involves the representation of a language with symbols. Writing systems are not themselves human languages ; they are means of rendering a language into a form that can be reconstructed by other humans separated by time and/or space. While not all languages utilize a writing system, those with systems of inscriptions can complement and extend capacities of spoken language by enabling the creation of durable forms of speech that can be transmitted across space and stored over time. It has also been observed that the activity of writing itself can have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on and potentially rework. Writing relies on many of the same semantic structures as the speech it represents, such as lexicon and syntax, with the added dependency of a system of symbols to represent that language's phonology and morphology. The result of the activity of writing is called a text, and the interpreter or activator of this text is called a reader." }, { "page": "Alphabet", "title": "Alphabet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Orbis_eruditi_literatura_%C3%A0_charactere_Samaritico_deducta_1689.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Orbis_eruditi_literatura_%C3%A0_charactere_Samaritico_deducta_1689.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet", "summary": "An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols or graphemes that represent the phonemes of certain spoken languages. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a syllable, for instance, and logographic systems use characters to represent words, morphemes, or other semantic units." }, { "page": "Arabic_alphabet", "title": "Arabic alphabet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arabic_Language.svg/800px-Arabic_Language.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/800px-Arabic_Language.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabet", "summary": "The Arabic alphabet, or Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as it is codified for writing Arabic. It is written from right to left in a cursive style and includes 28 letters. Most letters have contextual letterforms." }, { "page": "Brahmic_scripts", "title": "Brahmic scripts", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Writing_systems_worldwide.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Writing_systems_worldwide.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmic_scripts", "summary": "The Brahmic scripts are a family of abugida writing systems. They are used throughout the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and parts of East Asia, including Japan in the form of Siddhaṃ. They are descended from the Brahmi script of ancient India and are used by languages of several language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolic, Austroasiatic, Austronesian and Tai. They were also the source of the dictionary order (gojūon) of Japanese kana." }, { "page": "Cyrillic_script", "title": "Cyrillic script", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Archive-ugent-be-973E9242-B062-11E1-9EF1-99BDAAF23FF7_DS-375_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Archive-ugent-be-973E9242-B062-11E1-9EF1-99BDAAF23FF7_DS-375_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script", "summary": "The Cyrillic script is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia and is used as the national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Asia and East Asia." }, { "page": "Greek_alphabet", "title": "Greek alphabet", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet", "summary": "The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late ninth or early eighth century BC. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the first alphabetic script in history to have distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants. In Archaic and early Classical times, the Greek alphabet existed in many local variants, but, by the end of the fourth century BC, the Euclidean alphabet, with twenty-four letters, ordered from alpha to omega, had become standard and it is this version that is still used to write Greek today. These twenty-four letters are: Α α, Β β, Γ γ, Δ δ, Ε ε, Ζ ζ, Η η, Θ θ, Ι ι, Κ κ, Λ λ, Μ μ, Ν ν, Ξ ξ, Ο ο, Π π, Ρ ρ, Σ σ/ς, Τ τ, Υ υ, Φ φ, Χ χ, Ψ ψ, and Ω ω." }, { "page": "Latin_script", "title": "Latin script", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Abecedarium.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Abecedarium.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script", "summary": "Latin script, also known as Roman script, is a set of graphic signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet. This is derived from a form of the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet used by the Etruscans. Several Latin-script alphabets exist, which differ in graphemes, collation and phonetic values from the classical Latin alphabet." }, { "page": "Chinese_characters", "title": "Chinese characters", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hanzi.svg/512px-Hanzi.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Hanzi.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters", "summary": "Chinese characters or Hanzi are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. They have been adapted to write other Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as kanji. Chinese characters are the oldest continuously used system of writing in the world. By virtue of their widespread current use in East Asia, and historic use throughout the Sinosphere, Chinese characters are among the most widely adopted writing systems in the world by number of users." } ], "Media": [ { "page": "Mass_media", "title": "Mass media", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media", "summary": "Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets." }, { "page": "Broadcasting", "title": "Broadcasting", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Broadcasting1.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Broadcasting1.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting", "summary": "Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed audience via any electronic mass communications medium, but typically one using the electromagnetic spectrum, in a one-to-many model. Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of electronic communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. The term broadcasting evolved from its use as the agricultural method of sowing seeds in a field by casting them broadly about. It was later adopted for describing the widespread distribution of information by printed materials or by telegraph. Examples applying it to \"one-to-many\" radio transmissions of an individual station to multiple listeners appeared as early as 1898." }, { "page": "Journalism", "title": "Journalism", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism", "summary": "Journalism is unbiased production and distribution of reports on current or past events based on facts and supported with proofs or evidences. The word journalism applies to the occupation, as well as citizen journalists who gather and publish unbiased information based on facts and supported with proofs or evidences. Journalistic media include print, television, radio, Internet, and, in the past, newsreels." }, { "page": "News", "title": "News", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Al_Jazeera_English_Doha_Newsroom_1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Al_Jazeera_English_Doha_Newsroom_1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News", "summary": "News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events." }, { "page": "Publishing", "title": "Publishing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/The_Caxton_Celebration_-_William_Caxton_showing_specimens_of_his_printing_to_King_Edward_IV_and_his_Queen.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Caxton_Celebration_-_William_Caxton_showing_specimens_of_his_printing_to_King_Edward_IV_and_his_Queen.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing", "summary": "Publishing is the activity of making information, literature, music, software and other content available to the public for sale or for free. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works, such as books, newspapers, and magazines. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include electronic publishing such as ebooks, academic journals, micropublishing, websites, blogs, video game publishing, and the like." } ] }, "Health, medicine and disease": { "Illness and injury": [ { "page": "Disease", "title": "Disease", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease", "summary": "A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not due to any immediate external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific symptoms and signs. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies and autoimmune disorders." }, { "page": "Allergy", "title": "Allergy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Hives2010.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hives2010.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergy", "summary": "Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions." }, { "page": "Asthma", "title": "Asthma", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Two_Peak_Flow_Meters.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Two_Peak_Flow_Meters.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma", "summary": "Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. These may occur a few times a day or a few times per week. Depending on the person, asthma symptoms may become worse at night or with exercise." }, { "page": "Cancer", "title": "Cancer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer", "summary": "Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans." }, { "page": "Cardiovascular_disease", "title": "Cardiovascular disease", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease", "summary": "Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction. Other CVDs include stroke, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, abnormal heart rhythms, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis." }, { "page": "Stroke", "title": "Stroke", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/MCA_Territory_Infarct.svg/327px-MCA_Territory_Infarct.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/327px-MCA_Territory_Infarct.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke", "summary": "A stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. Both cause parts of the brain to stop functioning properly. Signs and symptoms of a stroke may include an inability to move or feel on one side of the body, problems understanding or speaking, dizziness, or loss of vision to one side. Signs and symptoms often appear soon after the stroke has occurred. If symptoms last less than one or two hours, the stroke is a transient ischemic attack (TIA), also called a mini-stroke. A hemorrhagic stroke may also be associated with a severe headache. The symptoms of a stroke can be permanent. Long-term complications may include pneumonia and loss of bladder control." }, { "page": "Diabetes", "title": "Diabetes", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Blue_circle_for_diabetes.svg/240px-Blue_circle_for_diabetes.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/240px-Blue_circle_for_diabetes.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes", "summary": "Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased appetite. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or death. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, damage to the nerves, damage to the eyes and cognitive impairment." }, { "page": "Gastroenteritis", "title": "Gastroenteritis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Gastroenteritis_viruses.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gastroenteritis_viruses.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastroenteritis", "summary": "Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea and gastro, is inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract—the stomach and small intestine. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Fever, lack of energy and dehydration may also occur. This typically lasts less than two weeks. It is not related to influenza, though it has erroneously been called the \"stomach flu\"." }, { "page": "Infection", "title": "Infection", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Malaria.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Malaria.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection", "summary": "An infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection." }, { "page": "Common_cold", "title": "Common cold", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Rhinovirus_isosurface.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rhinovirus_isosurface.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold", "summary": "The common cold, also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally, those with other health problems may develop pneumonia." }, { "page": "Influenza", "title": "Influenza", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/EM_of_influenza_virus.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/EM_of_influenza_virus.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza", "summary": "Influenza, commonly known as \"the flu\", is an infectious disease caused by an influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle and joint pain, headache, coughing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children, there may be diarrhea and vomiting, but these are not common in adults. Diarrhea and vomiting occur more commonly in gastroenteritis, which is an unrelated disease and sometimes inaccurately referred to as \"stomach flu\" or the \"24-hour flu\". Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure." }, { "page": "Malaria", "title": "Malaria", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria", "summary": "Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria." }, { "page": "Pneumonia", "title": "Pneumonia", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Chest_radiograph_in_influensa_and_H_influenzae%2C_posteroanterior%2C_annotated.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Chest_radiograph_in_influensa_and_H_influenzae%2C_posteroanterior%2C_annotated.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia", "summary": "Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever and difficulty breathing. The severity of the condition is variable. \n\nPneumonia is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria, and less commonly by other microorganisms. Identifying the responsible pathogen can be difficult. Diagnosis is often based on symptoms and physical examination. Chest X-rays, blood tests, and culture of the sputum may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired, such as community- or hospital-acquired or healthcare-associated pneumonia." }, { "page": "Sexually_transmitted_infection", "title": "Sexually transmitted infection", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Syphilis_is_a_dangerous_disease.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Syphilis_is_a_dangerous_disease.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection", "summary": "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), are infections that are commonly spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. STIs often do not initially cause symptoms, which results in a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Symptoms and signs of STIs may include vaginal discharge, penile discharge, ulcers on or around the genitals, and pelvic pain. STIs can be transmitted to an infant before or during childbirth, which may result in poor outcomes for the infant. Some STIs can cause infertility." }, { "page": "AIDS", "title": "HIV/AIDS", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Red_Ribbon.svg/744px-Red_Ribbon.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/744px-Red_Ribbon.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV%2FAIDS", "summary": "Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Following initial infection a person may not notice any symptoms, or may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms. If the infection progresses, it interferes more with the immune system, increasing the risk of developing common infections such as tuberculosis, as well as other opportunistic infections, and tumors which are otherwise rare in people who have normal immune function. These late symptoms of infection are referred to as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). This stage is often also associated with unintended weight loss." }, { "page": "Smallpox", "title": "Smallpox", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Child_with_Smallpox_Bangladesh.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Child_with_Smallpox_Bangladesh.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox", "summary": "Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by one of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980. The risk of death following contracting the disease was about 30%, with higher rates among babies. Often those who survived had extensive scarring of their skin, and some were left blind." }, { "page": "Tuberculosis", "title": "Tuberculosis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis", "summary": "Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis. About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those affected. The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic cough with blood-containing mucus, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. It was historically called consumption due to the weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms." }, { "page": "Mental_disorder", "title": "Mental disorder", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Mental_Disorder_Silhouette.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mental_Disorder_Silhouette.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder", "summary": "A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitting, or occur as a single episode. Many disorders have been described, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders. Such disorders may be diagnosed by a mental health professional." }, { "page": "Injury", "title": "Injury", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Xraymachine.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury", "summary": "Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force. This may be caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death." } ], "Health, fitness, and medicine": [ { "page": "Medicine", "title": "Medicine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Asklepios.3.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Asklepios.3.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine", "summary": "Medicine is the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others." }, { "page": "Dentistry", "title": "Dentistry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/GI_at_Guantanamo_visits_the_dentist.JPG/2592px-GI_at_Guantanamo_visits_the_dentist.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2592px-GI_at_Guantanamo_visits_the_dentist.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistry", "summary": "Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial area. Although primarily associated with teeth among the general public, the field of dentistry or dental medicine is not limited to teeth but includes other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint and other supporting, muscular, lymphatic, nervous, vascular, and anatomical structures." }, { "page": "Hospital", "title": "Hospital", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/NewYorkPresbyterian-Cornell.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NewYorkPresbyterian-Cornell.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital", "summary": "A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire and accident victims to a sudden illness. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with many beds for intensive care and additional beds for patients who need long-term care. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric treatment and certain disease categories. Specialized hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government depending on the sources of income received." }, { "page": "Surgery", "title": "Surgery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Cardiac_surgery_operating_room.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cardiac_surgery_operating_room.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery", "summary": "Surgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as a disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas." }, { "page": "Ageing", "title": "Ageing", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageing", "summary": "Ageing or aging is the process of becoming older. The term refers especially to human beings, many animals, and fungi, whereas for example bacteria, perennial plants and some simple animals are potentially biologically immortal. In the broader sense, aging can refer to single cells within an organism which have ceased dividing or to the population of a species." }, { "page": "Exercise", "title": "Exercise", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Soldier_running_in_water.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Soldier_running_in_water.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise", "summary": "Exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness." }, { "page": "Health", "title": "Health", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health", "summary": "Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being in which disease and infirmity are absent." }, { "page": "Hygiene", "title": "Hygiene", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Poster_%22Stop_microbes_use_good_hygiene%22.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Poster_%22Stop_microbes_use_good_hygiene%22.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene", "summary": "Hygiene is a series of practices performed to preserve health.\nAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), \"Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.\" Personal hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness." }, { "page": "Sanitation", "title": "Sanitation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Water_and_Sanitation_%2826170609358%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Water_and_Sanitation_%2826170609358%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation", "summary": "Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route. For example, diarrhea, a main cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation. There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis, cholera, hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few." }, { "page": "Nutrition", "title": "Nutrition", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition", "summary": "\nNutrition is the science that interprets the nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes ingestion, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion." }, { "page": "Obesity", "title": "Obesity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Obesity-waist_circumference.svg/376px-Obesity-waist_circumference.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/376px-Obesity-waist_circumference.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity", "summary": "Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to an extent that it may have a negative effect on health. People are generally considered obese when their body mass index (BMI), a measurement obtained by dividing a person's weight by the square of the person's height, is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight. Some East Asian countries use lower values. Obesity is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis. High BMI is a marker of risk, but not proven to be a direct cause, for diseases caused by diet, physical activity, and environmental factors. A reciprocal link has been found between obesity and depression, with obesity increasing the risk of clinical depression and also depression leading to a higher chance of developing obesity." } ], "Drugs and medication": [ { "page": "Drug", "title": "Drug", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug", "summary": "A drug is any substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when consumed. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, or dissolution under the tongue." }, { "page": "Medication", "title": "Medication", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/12-08-18-tilidin-retard.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/12-08-18-tilidin-retard.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication", "summary": "A medication is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management." }, { "page": "Anesthesia", "title": "Anesthesia", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia", "summary": "Anesthesia or anaesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia, paralysis, amnesia, and unconsciousness. A patient under the effects of anesthetic drugs is referred to as being anesthetized." }, { "page": "Antibiotic", "title": "Antibiotic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic", "summary": "An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the common cold or influenza; drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics." }, { "page": "Birth_control", "title": "Birth control", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Opened_Oral_Birth_Control.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Opened_Oral_Birth_Control.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control", "summary": "Birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy. Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only became available in the 20th century. Planning, making available, and using birth control is called family planning. Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally, religiously, or politically undesirable." }, { "page": "Vaccine", "title": "Vaccine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Edward_Jenner._Oil_painting._Wellcome_V0023503.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Edward_Jenner._Oil_painting._Wellcome_V0023503.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine", "summary": "A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic." }, { "page": "Addiction", "title": "Addiction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Brain_metabolism_and_drug_addiction.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction", "summary": "Addiction is a brain disorder characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences. Despite the involvement of a number of psychosocial factors, a biological process—one that is induced by repeated exposure to an addictive stimulus—is the core pathology that drives the development and maintenance of an addiction, according to the \"brain disease model\" of addiction. However, many scholars who study addiction argue that the brain disease model is incomplete and misleading." }, { "page": "Alcoholism", "title": "Alcoholism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/King_Alcohol_and_his_Prime_Minister.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/King_Alcohol_and_his_Prime_Minister.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism", "summary": "Alcoholism, more appropriately referred to as alcohol use disorder (AUD), is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol that results in mental and/or physical health problems ranging anywhere from mild and imperceptible without special testing to severe and grossly overt. The disorder was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts of alcohol over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcohol use can affect all parts of the body, but it particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system. Alcoholism can result in mental illness, delirium tremens, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, an impaired immune response, liver cirrhosis and increased cancer risk. Drinking during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Women are generally more sensitive than men to the harmful effects of alcohol, primarily due to their smaller body weight, lower capacity to metabolize alcohol, and higher proportion of body fat. In a small number of individuals, prolonged, severe alcohol abuse ultimately leads to frank dementia." }, { "page": "Smoking", "title": "Smoking", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Papierosa_1_ubt_0069.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Papierosa_1_ubt_0069.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking", "summary": "Smoking is a practice in which a substance is burned and the resulting smoke is breathed in to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which have been rolled into a small square of rice paper to create a small, round cylinder called a \"cigarette\". Smoking is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use because the combustion of the dried plant leaves vaporizes and delivers active substances into the lungs where they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and reach bodily tissue. In the case of cigarette smoking these substances are contained in a mixture of aerosol particles and gases and include the pharmacologically active alkaloid nicotine; the vaporization creates heated aerosol and gas into a form that allows inhalation and deep penetration into the lungs where absorption into the bloodstream of the active substances occurs. In some cultures, smoking is also carried out as a part of various rituals, where participants use it to help induce trance-like states that, they believe, can lead them to spiritual enlightenment." } ] }, "Science": { "General": [ { "page": "Science", "title": "Science", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science", "summary": "Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe." }, { "page": "Scientific_method", "title": "Scientific method", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/David_Deutsch.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/David_Deutsch.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method", "summary": "The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises." }, { "page": "Measurement", "title": "Measurement", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Measuring_Tape_Inch%2BCM.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Measuring_Tape_Inch%2BCM.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement", "summary": "\nMeasurement is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events. The scope and application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline. In the natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales." }, { "page": "International_System_of_Units", "title": "International System of Units", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/SI_Illustration_Base_Units_and_Constants_Colour_Full.svg/926px-SI_Illustration_Base_Units_and_Constants_Colour_Full.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/926px-SI_Illustration_Base_Units_and_Constants_Colour_Full.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units", "summary": "The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system. It is the only system of measurement with an official status in nearly every country in the world. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement starting with seven base units, which are the second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. The system allows for an unlimited number of additional units, called derived units, which can always be represented as products of powers of the base units. Twenty-two derived units have been provided with special names and symbols. The seven base units and the 22 derived units with special names and symbols may be used in combination to express other derived units, which are adopted to facilitate measurement of diverse quantities. The SI system also provides twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying power-of-ten multiples and sub-multiples of SI units. The SI is intended to be an evolving system; units and prefixes are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves." }, { "page": "Nature", "title": "Nature", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Shaqi_jrvej.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Shaqi_jrvej.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature", "summary": "Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, or material world or universe. \"Nature\" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena." } ], "Astronomy": [ { "page": "Astronomy", "title": "Astronomy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Crab_Nebula.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy", "summary": "Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates outside Earth's atmosphere. Cosmology is a branch of astronomy. It studies the Universe as a whole." }, { "page": "Universe", "title": "Universe", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe", "summary": "The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. While the spatial size of the entire universe is unknown, it is possible to measure the size of the observable universe, which is currently estimated to be 93 billion light-years in diameter. In various multiverse hypotheses, a universe is one of many causally disconnected constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself comprises all of space and time and its contents; as a consequence, ‘the universe’ and ‘the multiverse’ are synonymous in such theories." }, { "page": "Solar_System", "title": "Solar System", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Planets2013.svg/1047px-Planets2013.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1047px-Planets2013.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System", "summary": "The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of the objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest are the eight planets, with the remainder being smaller objects, the dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly—the moons—two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury." }, { "page": "Sun", "title": "Sun", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Sun_white.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sun_white.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun", "summary": "The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy mainly as light and infrared radiation. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometres, or 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth. It accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.\nRoughly three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron." }, { "page": "Mercury_(planet)", "title": "Mercury (planet)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)", "summary": "Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System. Its orbit around the Sun takes 87.97 days, the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System. It is named after the Greek god Hermes (Ερμής), translated into Latin Mercurius Mercury, god of commerce, messenger of the gods, mediator between gods and mortals." }, { "page": "Venus", "title": "Venus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/PIA23791-Venus-NewlyProcessedView-20200608.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/PIA23791-Venus-NewlyProcessedView-20200608.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus", "summary": "Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. As the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon, Venus can cast shadows and can be, on rare occasion, visible to the naked eye in broad daylight. Venus lies within Earth's orbit, and so never appears to venture far from the Sun, either setting in the west just after dusk or rising in the east a bit before dawn. Venus orbits the Sun every 224.7 Earth days. With a rotation period of 243 Earth days, it takes longer to rotate about its axis than any other planet in the Solar System and does so in the opposite direction to all but Uranus. Venus does not have any moons, a distinction it shares only with Mercury among planets in the Solar System." }, { "page": "Earth", "title": "Earth", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth", "summary": "Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. According to radiometric dating estimation and other evidence, Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago. Earth's gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon, which is Earth's only natural satellite. Earth orbits around the Sun in about 365.25 days." }, { "page": "Moon", "title": "Moon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/FullMoon2010.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/FullMoon2010.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon", "summary": "The Moon is an astronomical body orbiting Earth and is the planet's only natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest satellite in the Solar System, and by far the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits. The Moon is, after Jupiter's satellite Io, the second-densest satellite in the Solar System among those whose densities are known." }, { "page": "Mars", "title": "Mars", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/OSIRIS_Mars_true_color.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/OSIRIS_Mars_true_color.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars", "summary": "Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury. In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the \"Red Planet\". The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars's surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth." }, { "page": "Jupiter", "title": "Jupiter", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Jupiter_and_its_shrunken_Great_Red_Spot.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Jupiter_and_its_shrunken_Great_Red_Spot.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter", "summary": "Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun, but two-and-a-half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter is one of the brightest objects visible to the naked eye in the night sky, and has been known to ancient civilizations since before recorded history. It is named after the Roman god Jupiter. When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can be bright enough for its reflected light to cast visible shadows, and is on average the third-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus." }, { "page": "Saturn", "title": "Saturn", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Saturn_during_Equinox.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Saturn_during_Equinox.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn", "summary": "Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine times that of Earth. It only has one-eighth the average density of Earth; however, with its larger volume, Saturn is over 95 times more massive. Saturn is named after the Roman god of wealth and agriculture; its astronomical symbol (♄) represents the god's sickle." }, { "page": "Uranus", "title": "Uranus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Uranus2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Uranus2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus", "summary": "Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. Its name is a reference to the Greek god of the sky, Uranus, who, according to Greek mythology, was the grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter) and father of Cronus (Saturn). It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have bulk chemical compositions which differ from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as \"ice giants\" to distinguish them from the other gas giants. Uranus' atmosphere is similar to Jupiter's and Saturn's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, but it contains more \"ices\" such as water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of other hydrocarbons. It has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of 49 K, and has a complex, layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds. The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock." }, { "page": "Neptune", "title": "Neptune", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Neptune_-_Voyager_2_%2829347980845%29_flatten_crop.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Neptune_-_Voyager_2_%2829347980845%29_flatten_crop.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune", "summary": "Neptune is the eighth and farthest-known Solar planet from the Sun. In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times the mass of Earth, slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus. Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus because its greater mass causes more gravitational compression of its atmosphere. The planet orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 AU. It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol ♆, a stylised version of the god Neptune's trident." }, { "page": "Asteroid", "title": "Asteroid", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/%28253%29_mathilde.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%28253%29_mathilde.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid", "summary": "Asteroids are minor planets, especially of the inner Solar System. Larger asteroids have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not resolve into a disc in a telescope and was not observed to have characteristics of an active comet such as a tail. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered that were found to have volatile-rich surfaces similar to comets, these came to be distinguished from the objects found in the main asteroid belt." }, { "page": "Big_Bang", "title": "Big Bang", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang", "summary": "The Big Bang theory is a cosmological model of the observable universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The model describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of extremely high density and high temperature, and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and large-scale structure." }, { "page": "Black_hole", "title": "Black hole", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole", "summary": "A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole." }, { "page": "Comet", "title": "Comet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Deep_Impact_HRI.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Deep_Impact_HRI.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet", "summary": "A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures." }, { "page": "Galaxy", "title": "Galaxy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy", "summary": "A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The word galaxy is derived from the Greek galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally \"milky\", a reference to the Milky Way. Galaxies range in size from dwarfs with just a few hundred million stars to giants with one hundred trillion stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass." }, { "page": "Milky_Way", "title": "Milky Way", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/ESO-VLT-Laser-phot-33a-07.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/ESO-VLT-Laser-phot-33a-07.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way", "summary": "The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος. From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies." }, { "page": "Natural_satellite", "title": "Natural satellite", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Small_bodies_of_the_Solar_System.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Small_bodies_of_the_Solar_System.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_satellite", "summary": "A natural satellite, or moon, is, in the most common usage, an astronomical body that orbits a planet or minor planet." }, { "page": "Orbit", "title": "Orbit", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/STS-130_Endeavour_flyaround_5.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/STS-130_Endeavour_flyaround_5.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit", "summary": "In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion." }, { "page": "Outer_space", "title": "Outer space", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Earth's_atmosphere.svg/420px-Earth's_atmosphere.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/420px-Earth's_atmosphere.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space", "summary": "Outer space, or simply space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles, predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust, and cosmic rays. The baseline temperature of outer space, as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. The plasma between galaxies accounts for about half of the baryonic (ordinary) matter in the universe; it has a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins. Local concentrations of matter have condensed into stars and galaxies. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called dark matter, which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces. Observations suggest that the majority of the mass-energy in the observable universe is dark energy, a type of vacuum energy that is poorly understood. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the universe, but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space." }, { "page": "Physical_cosmology", "title": "Physical cosmology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/WMAP_2010.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/WMAP_2010.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology", "summary": "Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate. Cosmology as a science originated with the Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood. Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the development in 1915 of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external galaxies beyond the Milky Way; then, work by Vesto Slipher and others showed that the universe is expanding. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the Big Bang theory, by Georges Lemaître, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of alternative cosmologies; however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations." }, { "page": "Planet", "title": "Planet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet", "summary": "A planet is an astronomical body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals." }, { "page": "Star", "title": "Star", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Starsinthesky.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Starsinthesky.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star", "summary": "A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. The observable Universe contains an estimated 1×1024 stars, but most are invisible to the naked eye from Earth, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way." }, { "page": "Supernova", "title": "Supernova", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/SN1994D.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/SN1994D.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova", "summary": "A supernova is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion. This transient astronomical event occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months." } ], "Physics": [ { "page": "Physics", "title": "Physics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/CollageFisica.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CollageFisica.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics", "summary": "Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves." }, { "page": "Energy", "title": "Energy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Sun_in_February_%28black_version%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sun_in_February_%28black_version%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy", "summary": "In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton." }, { "page": "Time", "title": "Time", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/MontreGousset001.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/MontreGousset001.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time", "summary": "Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. Time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions." }, { "page": "Day", "title": "Day", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Daytime_image_of_the_bay_of_Naples.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Daytime_image_of_the_bay_of_Naples.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day", "summary": "A day is approximately the period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation around its axis. A solar day is the length of time which elapses between the Sun reaching its highest point in the sky two consecutive times. Days on other planets are defined similarly and vary in length due to differing rotation periods, that of Mars being slightly longer and sometimes called a sol." }, { "page": "Year", "title": "Year", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Analemma_fishburn.tif/lossy-page1-2362px-Analemma_fishburn.tif.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/lossy-page1-2362px-Analemma_fishburn.tif.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year", "summary": "A year is the orbital period of a planetary body, for example, the Earth, moving in its orbit around the Sun. Due to the Earth's axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by change in weather, the hours of daylight, and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility. In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked." }, { "page": "Classical_mechanics", "title": "Classical mechanics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Orbital_motion.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Orbital_motion.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics", "summary": "Classical mechanics is a physical theory describing the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies. For objects governed by classical mechanics, if the present state is known, it is possible to predict how it will move in the future (determinism) and how it has moved in the past (reversibility)." }, { "page": "Mass", "title": "Mass", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Poids_fonte_2_kg_03.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Poids_fonte_2_kg_03.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass", "summary": "Mass is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies." }, { "page": "Momentum", "title": "Momentum", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Billard.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Billard.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum", "summary": "In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If m is an object's mass and v is its velocity, then the object's momentum is:\n\nIn SI units, momentum is measured in kilogram meters per second (kg⋅m/s)." }, { "page": "Motion", "title": "Motion", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Leaving_Yongsan_Station.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Leaving_Yongsan_Station.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion", "summary": "In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position over time. Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed, and time. The motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame with change in time. The branch of physics describing the motion of objects without reference to its cause is kinematics; the branch studying forces and their effect on motion is dynamics." }, { "page": "Newton%27s_laws_of_motion", "title": "Newton's laws of motion", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion", "summary": "Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces. More precisely, the first law defines the force qualitatively, the second law offers a quantitative measure of the force, and the third asserts that a single isolated force does not exist. These three laws have been expressed in several ways, over nearly three centuries, and can be summarised as follows:First law\nIn an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.\nSecond law\nIn an inertial frame of reference, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. \nThird law\nWhen one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body." }, { "page": "Force", "title": "Force", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Force_examples.svg/500px-Force_examples.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/500px-Force_examples.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force", "summary": "In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F." }, { "page": "Electromagnetism", "title": "Electromagnetism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Lightning.0257.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lightning.0257.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism", "summary": "Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric fields and magnetic fields, and it is responsible for electromagnetic radiation such as light. It is one of the four fundamental interactions in nature, together with the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At high energy the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force." }, { "page": "Gravity", "title": "Gravity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/654px--Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/654px--Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity", "summary": "Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are brought toward one another. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and the Moon's gravity causes the ocean tides. The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to begin coalescing and forming stars and caused the stars to group together into galaxies, so gravity is responsible for many of the large-scale structures in the Universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become increasingly weaker as objects get further away." }, { "page": "Strong_interaction", "title": "Strong interaction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/665px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/665px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction", "summary": "In nuclear physics and particle physics, the strong interaction is the mechanism responsible for the strong nuclear force, and is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At the range of 10−15 m (1 femtometer), the strong force is approximately 137 times as strong as electromagnetism, a million times as strong as the weak interaction, and 1038 times as strong as gravitation. The strong nuclear force holds most ordinary matter together because it confines quarks into hadron particles such as the proton and neutron. In addition, the strong force binds these neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei. Most of the mass of a common proton or neutron is the result of the strong force field energy; the individual quarks provide only about 1% of the mass of a proton." }, { "page": "Weak_interaction", "title": "Weak interaction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beta-minus_Decay.svg/250px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/250px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interaction", "summary": "In nuclear physics and particle physics, the weak interaction, which is also often called the weak force or weak nuclear force, is the mechanism of interaction between subatomic particles that is responsible for the radioactive decay of atoms. The weak interaction participates in nuclear fission, and the theory describing it in terms of both its behaviour and effects is sometimes called quantum flavourdynamics (QFD). However, the term QFD is rarely used, because the weak force is better understood in terms of electroweak theory (EWT)." }, { "page": "Magnetism", "title": "Magnetism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Magnetic_quadrupole_moment.svg/267px-Magnetic_quadrupole_moment.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/267px-Magnetic_quadrupole_moment.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism", "summary": "Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. Magnetism is one aspect of the combined phenomenon of electromagnetism. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Demagnetizing a magnet is also possible. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, cobalt and nickel and their alloys. The prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4." }, { "page": "Matter", "title": "Matter", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Quartz_oisan.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Quartz_oisan.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter", "summary": "In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, \"matter\" generally includes atoms and anything made up of them, and any particles that act as if they have both rest mass and volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy phenomena or waves such as light or sound. Matter exists in various states. These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas – for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other states are possible, including plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma." }, { "page": "State_of_matter", "title": "State of matter", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Four_Fundamental_States_of_Matter.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Four_Fundamental_States_of_Matter.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter", "summary": "In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many intermediate states are known to exist, such as liquid crystal, and some states only exist under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark–gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme density, and extremely high energy. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter." }, { "page": "Particle_physics", "title": "Particle physics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics", "summary": "Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. Although the word particle can refer to various types of very small objects, particle physics usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the fundamental interactions necessary to explain their behaviour. By our current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest \"known\" particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity." }, { "page": "Standard_Model", "title": "Standard Model", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model", "summary": "The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces in the universe, as well as classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists around the world, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, confirmation of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy." }, { "page": "Subatomic_particle", "title": "Subatomic particle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1390px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle", "summary": "In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are smaller than atoms. They can be composite particles, such as the neutron and proton; or elementary particles, which according to the standard model are not made of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact.\nThe concept of a subatomic particle was refined when experiments showed that light could behave like a stream of particles as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves. Another concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, cannot be measured exactly. The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well." }, { "page": "Electron", "title": "Electron", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron", "summary": "The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, ħ. Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy." }, { "page": "Neutron", "title": "Neutron", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Quark_structure_neutron.svg/525px-Quark_structure_neutron.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/525px-Quark_structure_neutron.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron", "summary": "The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, which has a neutral charge and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons behave similarly within the nucleus, and each has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit, they are both referred to as nucleons. Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics." }, { "page": "Photon", "title": "Photon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/LASER.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/LASER.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon", "summary": "The photon is a type of elementary particle. It is the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless, and they always move at the speed of light in vacuum, 299792458 m/s." }, { "page": "Proton", "title": "Proton", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/525px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/525px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton", "summary": "A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of approximately one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as \"nucleons\"." }, { "page": "Quantum_mechanics", "title": "Quantum mechanics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics", "summary": "Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science." }, { "page": "Radioactive_decay", "title": "Radioactive decay", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/488px-NuclearReaction.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/488px-NuclearReaction.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay", "summary": "Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay, all of which involve emitting one or more particles or photons. The weak force is the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay." }, { "page": "Space", "title": "Space", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/487px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/487px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space", "summary": "Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework." }, { "page": "Vacuum", "title": "Vacuum", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Kolbenluftpumpe_hg.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kolbenluftpumpe_hg.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum", "summary": "A vacuum is space devoid of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for \"vacant\" or \"void\". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call \"vacuum\" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is considerably lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum." }, { "page": "Thermodynamics", "title": "Thermodynamics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Carnot_engine_%28hot_body_-_working_body_-_cold_body%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Carnot_engine_%28hot_body_-_working_body_-_cold_body%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics", "summary": "Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other complex fields such as meteorology." }, { "page": "Heat", "title": "Heat", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/171879main_LimbFlareJan12_lg.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/171879main_LimbFlareJan12_lg.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat", "summary": "In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The various mechanisms of energy transfer that define heat are stated in the next section of this article." }, { "page": "Temperature", "title": "Temperature", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Thermally_Agitated_Molecule.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thermally_Agitated_Molecule.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature", "summary": "Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal energy, present in all matter, which is the source of the occurrence of heat, a flow of energy, when a body is in contact with another that is colder." }, { "page": "Theory_of_relativity", "title": "Theory of relativity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg/1260px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1260px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity", "summary": "The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity applies to all physical phenomena in the absence of gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy." }, { "page": "Wave", "title": "Wave", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/2006-01-14_Surface_waves.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2006-01-14_Surface_waves.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave", "summary": "In physics, mathematics, and related fields, a wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance of one or more quantities, sometimes as described by a wave equation. In physical waves, at least two field quantities in the wave medium are involved. Waves can be periodic, in which case those quantities oscillate repeatedly about an equilibrium (resting) value at some frequency. When the entire waveform moves in one direction it is said to be a traveling wave; by contrast, a pair of superimposed periodic waves traveling in opposite directions makes a standing wave. In a standing wave, the amplitude of vibration has nulls at some positions where the wave amplitude appears smaller or even zero." }, { "page": "Electromagnetic_radiation", "title": "Electromagnetic radiation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/490px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/490px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation", "summary": "In physics, electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays." }, { "page": "Light", "title": "Light", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Light_dispersion_conceptual_waves.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Light_dispersion_conceptual_waves.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light", "summary": "Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometers (nm), or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m, between the infrared and the ultraviolet. This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz)." }, { "page": "Color", "title": "Color", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/64_365_Color_Macro_%285498808099%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/64_365_Color_Macro_%285498808099%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color", "summary": "Color, or colour, is the characteristic of visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, or purple. This perception of color derives from the stimulation of photoreceptor cells by electromagnetic radiation. Color categories and physical specifications of color are associated with objects through the wavelengths of the light that is reflected from them and their intensities. This reflection is governed by the object's physical properties such as light absorption, emission spectra, etc." }, { "page": "Optics", "title": "Optics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Light_dispersion_of_a_mercury-vapor_lamp_with_a_flint_glass_prism_IPNr%C2%B00125.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Light_dispersion_of_a_mercury-vapor_lamp_with_a_flint_glass_prism_IPNr%C2%B00125.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics", "summary": "Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties." }, { "page": "Speed_of_light", "title": "Speed of light", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Earth_to_Sun_-_en.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Earth_to_Sun_-_en.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light", "summary": "The speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted c, is a universal physical constant important in many areas of physics. Its exact value is defined as 299792458 metres per second. It is exact because, by international agreement, a metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of ​1⁄299792458 second. According to special relativity, c is the upper limit for the speed at which conventional matter and information can travel. Though this speed is most commonly associated with light, it is also the speed at which all massless particles and field perturbations travel in vacuum, including electromagnetic radiation and gravitational waves. Such particles and waves travel at c regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the observer. Particles with nonzero rest mass can approach c, but can never actually reach it, regardless of the frame of reference in which their speed is measured. In the special and general theories of relativity, c interrelates space and time, and also appears in the famous equation of mass–energy equivalence E = mc2." }, { "page": "Sound", "title": "Sound", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Thoth08BigasDrumEvansChalmette.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thoth08BigasDrumEvansChalmette.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound", "summary": "In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid." } ], "Biology": [ { "page": "Biology", "title": "Biology", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology", "summary": "Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis." }, { "page": "Life", "title": "Life", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Ruwenpflanzen.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ruwenpflanzen.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life", "summary": "Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased, or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate. Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. Biology is the science concerned with the study of life." }, { "page": "Cell_(biology)", "title": "Cell (biology)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Wilson1900Fig2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wilson1900Fig2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)", "summary": "The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the \"building blocks of life\". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology." }, { "page": "Death", "title": "Death", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Hendrick_Andriezsoon_-_Vanitas.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hendrick_Andriezsoon_-_Vanitas.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death", "summary": "Death is the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. The remains of a living organism begin to decompose shortly after death. It is an inevitable process eventually occurring in all living organisms." }, { "page": "Abiogenesis", "title": "Abiogenesis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis", "summary": "In evolutionary biology, abiogenesis, or informally the origin of life (OoL), is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. While the details of this process are still unknown, the prevailing scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living to living entities was not a single event, but an evolutionary process of increasing complexity that involved molecular self-replication, self-assembly, autocatalysis, and the emergence of cell membranes. Although the occurrence of abiogenesis is uncontroversial among scientists, its possible mechanisms are poorly understood. There are several principles and hypotheses for how abiogenesis could have occurred." }, { "page": "Evolution", "title": "Evolution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Darwin's_finches_by_Gould.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Darwin's_finches_by_Gould.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution", "summary": "Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given population as a result of mutation, genetic recombination and other sources of genetic variation. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population. It is this process of evolution that has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms and molecules." }, { "page": "Human_evolution", "title": "Human evolution", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Akha_cropped.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Akha_cropped.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution", "summary": "Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates—in particular genus Homo—and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, which includes the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language, as well as interbreeding with other hominins, which indicate that human evolution was not linear but a web." }, { "page": "Natural_selection", "title": "Natural selection", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection", "summary": "Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Charles Darwin popularised the term \"natural selection\", contrasting it with artificial selection, which in his view is intentional, whereas natural selection is not." }, { "page": "Organism", "title": "Organism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism", "summary": "In biology, an organism is any individual entity that embodies the properties of life. It is a synonym for \"life form\"." }, { "page": "Animal", "title": "Animal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Animal_diversity.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Animal_diversity.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal", "summary": "Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. Animals range in length from 8.5 micrometres (0.00033 in) to 33.6 metres (110 ft). They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The kingdom Animalia includes humans but in colloquial use the term animal often refers only to non-human animals. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology." }, { "page": "Zoology", "title": "Zoology", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology", "summary": "Zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i.e. \"animal\" and λόγος, logos, i.e. \"knowledge, study\"." }, { "page": "Amphibian", "title": "Amphibian", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Amphibians.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Amphibians.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian", "summary": "Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this." }, { "page": "Arthropod", "title": "Arthropod", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Arthropoda.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod", "summary": "An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Euarthropoda, which includes insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. The term Arthropoda as originally proposed refers to a proposed grouping of Euarthropods and the phylum Onychophora." }, { "page": "Insect", "title": "Insect", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Insect_collage.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Insect_collage.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect", "summary": "Insects or Insecta are hexapod invertebrates and the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Definitions and circumscriptions vary; usually, insects comprise a class within the Arthropoda. As used here, the term Insecta is synonymous with Ectognatha. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals; they include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms. The total number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million; potentially over 90% of the animal life forms on Earth are insects. Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans, which are dominated by another arthropod group, crustaceans." }, { "page": "Bird", "title": "Bird", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Bird_Diversity_2013.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bird_Diversity_2013.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird", "summary": "Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves, characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m (9 ft) ostrich. There are about ten thousand living species, more than half of which are passerine, or \"perching\" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming." }, { "page": "Fish", "title": "Fish", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Georgia_Aquarium_-_Giant_Grouper_edit.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Georgia_Aquarium_-_Giant_Grouper_edit.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish", "summary": "Fish are gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a sister group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups." }, { "page": "Mammal", "title": "Mammal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Mammal_Diversity_2011.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mammal_Diversity_2011.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal", "summary": "Mammals are vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia, and characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which they diverged in the late Carboniferous, approximately 300 million years ago. Around 6,400 extant species of mammals have been described. The largest orders are the rodents, bats and Eulipotyphla. The next three are the Primates, the Artiodactyla, and the Carnivora." }, { "page": "Cat", "title": "Cat", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Cat_poster_1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cat_poster_1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat", "summary": "The cat is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it from the wild members of the family. A cat can either be a house cat, a farm cat or a feral cat; the latter ranges freely and avoids human contact. Domestic cats are valued by humans for companionship and their ability to hunt rodents. About 60 cat breeds are recognized by various cat registries." }, { "page": "Cattle", "title": "Cattle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/CH_cow_2_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CH_cow_2_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle", "summary": "Cattle, or cows (female) and bulls (male), are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus." }, { "page": "Dog", "title": "Dog", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Collage_of_Nine_Dogs.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Collage_of_Nine_Dogs.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog", "summary": "The dog is a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae. It is part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated, and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes." }, { "page": "Horse", "title": "Horse", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Nokota_Horses_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse", "summary": "The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior." }, { "page": "Primate", "title": "Primate", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Range_of_Non-human_Primates.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Range_of_Non-human_Primates.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate", "summary": "A primate is a eutherian mammal constituting the taxonomic order Primates. Primates arose 85–55 million years ago first from small terrestrial mammals, which adapted to living in the trees of tropical forests: many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging environment, including large brains, visual acuity, color vision, altered shoulder girdle, and dextrous hands. Primates range in size from Madame Berthe's mouse lemur, which weighs 30 g (1 oz), to the eastern gorilla, weighing over 200 kg (440 lb). There are 190–448 species of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in the first decade of the 2000s, and eleven since 2010." }, { "page": "Human", "title": "Human", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Akha_cropped_hires.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Akha_cropped_hires.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human", "summary": "Humans are a species of highly intelligent primates. They are the only extant members of the subtribe Hominina and—together with chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans—are part of the family Hominidae. Humans are terrestrial animals, characterized by their erect posture and bipedal locomotion; high manual dexterity and heavy tool use compared to other animals; open-ended and complex language use compared to other animal communications; larger, more complex brains than other primates; and highly advanced and organized societies." }, { "page": "Rodent", "title": "Rodent", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Rodent_collage.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rodent_collage.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent", "summary": "Rodents are mammals of the order Rodentia, which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents; they are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica. They are the most diversified mammalian order and live in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including human-made environments." }, { "page": "Reptile", "title": "Reptile", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Extant_reptilia.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Extant_reptilia.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile", "summary": "Reptiles are tetrapod animals in the class Reptilia, comprising today's turtles, crocodilians, snakes, amphisbaenians, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. The study of these traditional reptile orders, historically combined with that of modern amphibians, is called herpetology." }, { "page": "Dinosaur", "title": "Dinosaur", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Dinosauria_montage_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dinosauria_montage_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur", "summary": "Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago, although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 million years ago; their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record shows that birds are modern feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage to survive the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 million years ago. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs, or birds; and non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds." }, { "page": "Plant", "title": "Plant", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Diversity_of_plants_image_version_5.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Diversity_of_plants_image_version_5.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant", "summary": "Plants are mainly multicellular organisms, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, plants were treated as one of two kingdoms including all living things that were not animals, and all algae and fungi were treated as plants. However, all current definitions of Plantae exclude the fungi and some algae, as well as the prokaryotes. By one definition, plants form the clade Viridiplantae, a group that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns and their allies, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae, but excludes the red and brown algae." }, { "page": "Botany", "title": "Botany", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany", "summary": "Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term \"botany\" comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning \"pasture\", \"grass\", or \"fodder\"; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, \"to feed\" or \"to graze\". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants, and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes." }, { "page": "Flower", "title": "Flower", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Flower_poster_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower", "summary": "A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing resulting from cross pollination or allow selfing when self pollination occurs." }, { "page": "Seed", "title": "Seed", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F%D0%BD.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F%D0%BD.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed", "summary": "A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants." }, { "page": "Tree", "title": "Tree", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Ash_Tree_-_geograph.org.uk_-_590710.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ash_Tree_-_geograph.org.uk_-_590710.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree", "summary": "In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. In wider definitions, the taller palms, tree ferns, bananas, and bamboos are also trees. Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years. It is estimated that there are some three trillion mature trees in the world." }, { "page": "Algae", "title": "Algae", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NSW_seabed_1.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae", "summary": "Algae is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping, including species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 m in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem, which are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts." }, { "page": "Archaea", "title": "Archaea", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Halobacteria.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Halobacteria.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea", "summary": "Archaea constitute a domain of single-celled organisms. These microorganisms lack cell nuclei and are therefore prokaryotes. Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria, but this classification is obsolete." }, { "page": "Bacteria", "title": "Bacteria", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria", "summary": "Bacteria are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology." }, { "page": "Eukaryote", "title": "Eukaryote", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Eukaryota_diversity_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Eukaryota_diversity_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote", "summary": "Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear envelope. Eukaryotes belong to the domain Eukaryota or Eukarya; their name comes from the Greek εὖ and κάρυον. The domain Eukaryota makes up one of the domains of life in the three-domain system; the two other domains are Bacteria and Archaea. Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of the number of living organisms; however, due to their generally much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is estimated to be about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes evolved approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago, during the Proterozoic eon." }, { "page": "Fungus", "title": "Fungus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Fungi_collage.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus", "summary": "A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals." }, { "page": "Virus", "title": "Virus", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/SARS-CoV-2_without_background.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/SARS-CoV-2_without_background.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus", "summary": "A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.\nSince Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants, and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, more than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail, of the millions of types of viruses in the environment. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a subspeciality of microbiology." }, { "page": "Anatomy", "title": "Anatomy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Vesalius-copy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vesalius-copy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy", "summary": "Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine." }, { "page": "Human_body", "title": "Human body", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Human_Body_02.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Human_Body_02.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body", "summary": "The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body." }, { "page": "Circulatory_system", "title": "Circulatory system", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Circulatory_System_en.svg/550px-Circulatory_System_en.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/550px-Circulatory_System_en.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system", "summary": "The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis." }, { "page": "Blood", "title": "Blood", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Venous_and_arterial_blood.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Venous_and_arterial_blood.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood", "summary": "Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells." }, { "page": "Heart", "title": "Heart", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Heart_anterior_exterior_view.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Heart_anterior_exterior_view.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart", "summary": "The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to the lungs. In humans, the heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest." }, { "page": "Lung", "title": "Lung", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg/510px-Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/510px-Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung", "summary": "The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their different muscles to support and foster breathing. In early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the main muscle of respiration that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible." }, { "page": "Digestion", "title": "Digestion", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Blausen_0316_DigestiveSystem.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Blausen_0316_DigestiveSystem.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion", "summary": "Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use." }, { "page": "Liver", "title": "Liver", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Liver_01_animation1.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Liver_01_animation1.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver", "summary": "The liver is an organ only found in vertebrates which detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth. In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, and the production of hormones." }, { "page": "Immune_system", "title": "Immune system", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system", "summary": "The immune system is a host defense system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, there are two major subsystems of the immune system: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. Both subsystems use humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity to perform their functions. In humans, the blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and similar fluid–brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune system, which protects the brain." }, { "page": "Skin", "title": "Skin", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Elephant_Skin.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Elephant_Skin.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin", "summary": "Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation." }, { "page": "Muscle", "title": "Muscle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Skeletal_muscle.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Skeletal_muscle.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle", "summary": "Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion. They are primarily responsible for maintaining and changing posture, locomotion, as well as movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis." }, { "page": "Nervous_system", "title": "Nervous system", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg/766px-TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/766px-TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system", "summary": "In biology, the nervous system is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Spinal nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves." }, { "page": "Brain", "title": "Brain", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain", "summary": "A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of neurons in the cerebellum is 55–70 billion. Each neuron is connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons typically communicate with one another by means of long fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells." }, { "page": "Ear", "title": "Ear", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Human_right_ear_%28cropped%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Human_right_ear_%28cropped%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear", "summary": "The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word \"ear\" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation." }, { "page": "Eye", "title": "Eye", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg/416px-Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/416px-Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye", "summary": "Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide animals with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system. Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods." }, { "page": "Sense", "title": "Sense", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense", "summary": "Sensation is the physical process during which sensory systems respond to stimuli and provide data for perception. A sense is any of the systems involved in sensation. During sensation, sense organs engage in stimulus collection and transduction. Sensation is often differentiated from the related and dependent concept of perception, which processes and integrates sensory information in order to give meaning to and understand detected stimuli, giving rise to subjective perceptual experience, or qualia. Sensation and perception are central to and precede almost all aspects of cognition, behavior and thought." }, { "page": "Skeleton", "title": "Skeleton", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Horse_and_Man.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Horse_and_Man.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton", "summary": "The skeleton is the body part that provides support, shape and protection to the soft tissues and delicate organs of animals. There are several different skeletal types: the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside the body, the hydroskeleton, a flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure, and the cytoskeleton present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria, and archaea. The term comes from Greek σκελετός (skeletós) 'dried up'." }, { "page": "Ecology", "title": "Ecology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology", "summary": "Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits." }, { "page": "Biodiversity", "title": "Biodiversity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Fungi_of_Saskatchewan.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Fungi_of_Saskatchewan.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity", "summary": "Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the equator, which is the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics. These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species. Marine biodiversity is usually highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future." }, { "page": "Ecosystem", "title": "Ecosystem", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem", "summary": "An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes." }, { "page": "Extinction", "title": "Extinction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Bufo_periglenes2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bufo_periglenes2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction", "summary": "Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly \"reappears\" after a period of apparent absence." }, { "page": "Genetics", "title": "Genetics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics", "summary": "Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms." }, { "page": "DNA", "title": "DNA", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.pn_NoBB.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.pn_NoBB.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA", "summary": "Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life." }, { "page": "Gene", "title": "Gene", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg/1200px-Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1200px-Chromosome_DNA_Gene_unannotated.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene", "summary": "In biology, a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that encodes the synthesis of a gene product, either RNA or protein." }, { "page": "Heredity", "title": "Heredity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity", "summary": "Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection. The study of heredity in biology is genetics." }, { "page": "RNA", "title": "RNA", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA", "summary": "Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, nucleic acids constitute one of the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA, RNA is found in nature as a single strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome." }, { "page": "Metabolism", "title": "Metabolism", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Myoglobin.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Myoglobin.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism", "summary": "Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.." }, { "page": "Molecular_biology", "title": "Molecular biology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Myoglobin.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Myoglobin.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology", "summary": "Molecular biology is the branch of biology that concerns the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms and interactions. The central dogma of molecular biology describes the process in which DNA is transcribed into RNA then translated into protein." }, { "page": "Protein", "title": "Protein", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Myoglobin.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Myoglobin.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein", "summary": "Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells, and organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific 3D structure that determines its activity." }, { "page": "Paleontology", "title": "Paleontology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology", "summary": "Paleontology, also spelled palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to classify organisms and study interactions with each other and their environments. Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BCE. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, \"old, ancient\", ὄν, on, \"being, creature\", and λόγος, logos, \"speech, thought, study\"." }, { "page": "Photosynthesis", "title": "Photosynthesis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Photosynthesis_en.svg/354px-Photosynthesis_en.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/354px-Photosynthesis_en.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis", "summary": "Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek phōs (φῶς), \"light\", and sunthesis (σύνθεσις), \"putting together\". In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth." }, { "page": "Reproduction", "title": "Reproduction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Kalanchoe_veg.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kalanchoe_veg.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction", "summary": "Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms – \"offspring\" – are produced from their \"parents\". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual." }, { "page": "Sex", "title": "Sex", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex", "summary": "Organisms of many species are specialized into male and female varieties, each known as a sex. Sexual reproduction involves the combining and mixing of genetic traits: specialized cells known as gametes combine to form offspring that inherit traits from each parent. The gametes produced by an organism define its sex: males produce small gametes while females produce large gametes. Individual organisms which produce both male and female gametes are termed hermaphroditic. Gametes can be identical in form and function, but, in many cases, an asymmetry has evolved such that two different types of gametes (heterogametes) exist." }, { "page": "Pregnancy", "title": "Pregnancy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Pregnant_woman.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pregnant_woman.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy", "summary": "Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman. A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but can occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures. A pregnancy may end in a live birth, a spontaneous miscarriage, an induced abortion, or a stillbirth. Childbirth typically occurs around 40 weeks from the start of the last menstrual period (LMP). This is just over nine months – where each month averages 31 days. When using fertilization age it is about 38 weeks. An embryo is the developing offspring during the first eight weeks following fertilization, after which, the term fetus is used until birth. Signs and symptoms of early pregnancy may include missed periods, tender breasts, nausea and vomiting, hunger, and frequent urination. Pregnancy may be confirmed with a pregnancy test." }, { "page": "Sleep", "title": "Sleep", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Sleeping-girl.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sleeping-girl.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep", "summary": "Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than a coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns." }, { "page": "Taxonomy_(biology)", "title": "Taxonomy (biology)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Darwin's_finches_by_Gould.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Darwin's_finches_by_Gould.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)", "summary": "In biology, taxonomy is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped together into taxa and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms." }, { "page": "Species", "title": "Species", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species", "summary": "In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined." } ], "Chemistry": [ { "page": "Chemistry", "title": "Chemistry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Henrika_%C5%A0antel_-_Kemi%C4%8Darka.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Henrika_%C5%A0antel_-_Kemi%C4%8Darka.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry", "summary": "Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other substances." }, { "page": "Biochemistry", "title": "Biochemistry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Myoglobin.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Myoglobin.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry", "summary": "Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life." }, { "page": "Inorganic_chemistry", "title": "Inorganic chemistry", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry", "summary": "Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad of organic compounds, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture." }, { "page": "Organic_chemistry", "title": "Organic chemistry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Ch4-structure.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ch4-structure.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry", "summary": "Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties and reactions of organic compounds, which contain carbon in covalent bonding. Study of structure determines their chemical composition and formula. Study of properties includes physical and chemical properties, and evaluation of chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The study of organic reactions includes the chemical synthesis of natural products, drugs, and polymers, and study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory and via theoretical study." }, { "page": "Physical_chemistry", "title": "Physical chemistry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Lomonosov_Chymiae_Physicae_1752.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lomonosov_Chymiae_Physicae_1752.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_chemistry", "summary": "Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, analytical dynamics and chemical equilibrium." }, { "page": "Chemical_element", "title": "Chemical element", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-en.svg/1205px-Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-en.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1205px-Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-en.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element", "summary": "In chemistry, an element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down by chemical means, consisting of atoms which have identical numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number. Chemical elements constitute all of the baryonic matter of the universe." }, { "page": "Atom", "title": "Atom", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/665px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/665px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom", "summary": "An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100 picometers across. They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics—as if they were tennis balls, for example—is not possible due to quantum effects." }, { "page": "Periodic_table", "title": "Periodic table", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Taxonomic_PT_with_colour_categories.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Taxonomic_PT_with_colour_categories.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table", "summary": "The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table shows periodic trends. The seven rows of the table, called periods, generally have metals on the left and nonmetals on the right. The columns, called groups, contain elements with similar chemical behaviours. Six groups have accepted names as well as assigned numbers: for example, group 17 elements are the halogens; and group 18 are the noble gases. Also displayed are four simple rectangular areas or blocks associated with the filling of different atomic orbitals." }, { "page": "Aluminium", "title": "Aluminium", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Aluminium-4.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Aluminium-4.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium", "summary": "Aluminium is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, non-magnetic and ductile metal in the boron group. By mass, aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust and the third most abundant element. The abundance of aluminium decreases relative to other elements at greater depths into Earth's mantle and beyond. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium metal is highly reactive, so native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals." }, { "page": "Carbon", "title": "Carbon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon", "summary": "Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Carbon makes up only about 0.025 percent of Earth's crust. Three isotopes occur naturally, 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is a radionuclide, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity." }, { "page": "Copper", "title": "Copper", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/NatCopper.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper", "summary": "Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement." }, { "page": "Gold", "title": "Gold", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Gold_nugget_%28Australia%29_4_%2816848647509%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gold_nugget_%28Australia%29_4_%2816848647509%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold", "summary": "Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and atomic number 79, making it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. In a pure form, it is a bright, slightly reddish yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions. Gold often occurs in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the native element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper and palladium. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium." }, { "page": "Hydrogen", "title": "Hydrogen", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Hexagonal.svg/295px-Hexagonal.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/295px-Hexagonal.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen", "summary": "Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton and no neutrons." }, { "page": "Iron", "title": "Iron", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron", "summary": "Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is by mass the most common element on Earth, right in front of oxygen, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust." }, { "page": "Nitrogen", "title": "Nitrogen", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Liquidnitrogen.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Liquidnitrogen.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen", "summary": "Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772. Although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. The name nitrogène was suggested by French chemist Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal in 1790 when it was found that nitrogen was present in nitric acid and nitrates. Antoine Lavoisier suggested instead the name azote, from the Greek ἀζωτικός \"no life\", as it is an asphyxiant gas; this name is instead used in many languages, such as French, Italian, Russian, Romanian and Turkish, and appears in the English names of some nitrogen compounds such as hydrazine, azides and azo compounds." }, { "page": "Oxygen", "title": "Oxygen", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Liquid_oxygen_in_a_beaker_4.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Liquid_oxygen_in_a_beaker_4.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen", "summary": "Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. After hydrogen and helium, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe by mass. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.95% of the Earth's atmosphere. Oxygen makes up almost half of the Earth's crust in the form of oxides." }, { "page": "Silicon", "title": "Silicon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/SiliconCroda.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/SiliconCroda.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon", "summary": "Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor. It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table: carbon is above it; and germanium, tin, and lead are below it. It is relatively unreactive. Because of its high chemical affinity for oxygen, it was not until 1823 that Jöns Jakob Berzelius was first able to prepare it and characterize it in pure form. Its oxides form a family of anions known as silicates. Its melting and boiling points of 1414 °C and 3265 °C respectively are the second-highest among all the metalloids and nonmetals, being only surpassed by boron. Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in space in cosmic dusts, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. More than 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, after oxygen." }, { "page": "Silver", "title": "Silver", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Silver_crystal.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver", "summary": "Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form, as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining." }, { "page": "Chemical_compound", "title": "Chemical compound", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/2006-02-13_Drop-impact.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2006-02-13_Drop-impact.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound", "summary": "A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds. A molecule consisting of atoms of only one element is therefore not a compound." }, { "page": "Water", "title": "Water", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Ice_water_vapor.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ice_water_vapor.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water", "summary": "Water is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds." }, { "page": "Carbon_dioxide", "title": "Carbon dioxide", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Carbon-dioxide-2D-dimensions.svg/740px-Carbon-dioxide-2D-dimensions.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/740px-Carbon-dioxide-2D-dimensions.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide", "summary": "Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas with a density about 53% higher than that of dry air. Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It occurs naturally in Earth's atmosphere as a trace gas. The current concentration is about 0.04% (412 ppm) by volume, having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm. Natural sources include volcanoes, hot springs and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids. Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers and lakes, ice caps, glaciers and seawater. It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas. Carbon dioxide is odorless at normally encountered concentrations, but at high concentrations, it has a sharp and acidic odor. At such concentrations it generates the taste of soda water in the mouth." }, { "page": "Chemical_bond", "title": "Chemical bond", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Electron_dot.svg/351px-Electron_dot.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/351px-Electron_dot.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond", "summary": "A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are \"strong bonds\" or \"primary bonds\" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and \"weak bonds\" or \"secondary bonds\" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding." }, { "page": "Molecule", "title": "Molecule", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/PTCDA_AFM.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule", "summary": "A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge." }, { "page": "Chemical_reaction", "title": "Chemical reaction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/ThermiteReaction.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/ThermiteReaction.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction", "summary": "A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei, and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur." }, { "page": "Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction", "title": "Acid–base reaction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Acid_Base_Reaction_Models.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Acid_Base_Reaction_Models.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction", "summary": "An acid–base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory." }, { "page": "Catalysis", "title": "Catalysis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Low_Temperature_Oxidation_Catalyst.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Low_Temperature_Oxidation_Catalyst.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis", "summary": "Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst. Catalysts are not consumed in the catalyzed reaction but can act repeatedly. Often only very small amounts of catalyst are required. The global demand for catalysts in 2010 was estimated at approximately US$29.5 billion." }, { "page": "Redox", "title": "Redox", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/16._%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%93%D1%83_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE.webm/1920px--16._%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%93%D1%83_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE.webm.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1920px--16._%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%93%D1%83_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE.webm.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox", "summary": "Redox is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Redox reactions are characterized by the actual or formal transfer of electrons between chemical species, most often with one species undergoing oxidation while another species undergoes reduction. The chemical species from which the electron is removed is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. In other words:Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule.\nReduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule." }, { "page": "Metal", "title": "Metal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal", "summary": "A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable or ductile. A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride." }, { "page": "Alloy", "title": "Alloy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Wooduv_kov.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wooduv_kov.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy", "summary": "An alloy is a combination of metals or metals combined with one or more other elements. For example, combining the metallic elements gold and copper produces red gold, gold and silver becomes white gold, and silver combined with copper produces sterling silver. Elemental iron, combined with non-metallic carbon or silicon, produces alloys called steel or silicon steel. The resulting mixture forms a substance with properties that often differ from those of the pure metals, such as increased strength or hardness. Unlike other substances that may contain metallic bases but do not behave as metals, such as aluminium oxide (sapphire), beryllium aluminium silicate (emerald) or sodium chloride (salt), an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, opaqueness, and luster. Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium-alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze and amalgams." }, { "page": "Bronze", "title": "Bronze", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Bull's_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Bull's_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze", "summary": "Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals and sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon. These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability." }, { "page": "Steel", "title": "Steel", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/FagerstaRA%C3%842.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/FagerstaRA%C3%842.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel", "summary": "Steel is an alloy of iron with typically a few percent of carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to iron. Many other additional elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion and oxidation resistant need typically an additional 11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, machines, electrical appliances, and weapons. Iron is the base metal of steel and it can take on two crystalline forms : body centred cubic and face-centred cubic. These forms depend on temperature. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-centred cubic, there is one atom at the centre of each of the six faces of the cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties." } ], "Earth science": [ { "page": "Earth_science", "title": "Earth science", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/DirkvdM_rocks.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/DirkvdM_rocks.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science", "summary": "Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical and chemical constitution of the Earth and its atmosphere. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, but with a much older history. Earth science encompasses four main branches of study, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, each of which is further broken down into more specialized fields." }, { "page": "History_of_Earth", "title": "History of Earth", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/803px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/803px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Earth", "summary": "The history of Earth concerns the development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day. Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to understanding of the main events of Earth's past, characterized by constant geological change and biological evolution." }, { "page": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "title": "Atmosphere of Earth", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Thin_Line_of_Earth's_Atmosphere_and_the_Setting_Sun.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thin_Line_of_Earth's_Atmosphere_and_the_Setting_Sun.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth", "summary": "The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, retained by Earth's gravity, surrounding the planet Earth and forming its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention, and reducing temperature extremes between day and night." }, { "page": "Structure_of_Earth", "title": "Structure of Earth", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/2200px-Earth_poster.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2200px-Earth_poster.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_Earth", "summary": "The internal structure of Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior." }, { "page": "Season", "title": "Season", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season", "summary": "A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the amount of daylight. On Earth, seasons are the result of Earth's orbit around the Sun and Earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant. Various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional variations." }, { "page": "Flood", "title": "Flood", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Urban_flood_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Urban_flood_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood", "summary": "A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of \"flowing water\", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering and public health." }, { "page": "Climate", "title": "Climate", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/ShipTracks_MODIS_2005may11.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/ShipTracks_MODIS_2005may11.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate", "summary": "Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, which includes the ocean and ice on Earth. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents." }, { "page": "Climate_change", "title": "Climate change", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/960px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/960px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change", "summary": "Climate change includes both the global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases, and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. Though there have been previous periods of climatic change, since the mid-20th century the rate of human impact on Earth's climate system and the global scale of that impact have been unprecedented." }, { "page": "Weather", "title": "Weather", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Thunder_lightning_Garajau_Madeira_289985700.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Thunder_lightning_Garajau_Madeira_289985700.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather", "summary": "Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. On Earth, most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the planet's atmosphere, the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, \"weather\" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth." }, { "page": "Cloud", "title": "Cloud", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud", "summary": "In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of minute liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or other particles suspended in the atmosphere of a planetary body or similar space. Water or various other chemicals may compose the droplets and crystals. On Earth, clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point, or when it gains sufficient moisture from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature." }, { "page": "Rain", "title": "Rain", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Rain_Falling_over_Desert_at_Sunset.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Rain_Falling_over_Desert_at_Sunset.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain", "summary": "Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation." }, { "page": "Snow", "title": "Snow", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/CargoNet_Di_12_Euro_4000_L%C3%B8nsdal_-_Bolna.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/CargoNet_Di_12_Euro_4000_L%C3%B8nsdal_-_Bolna.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow", "summary": "Snow comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide or sublimate away." }, { "page": "Tornado", "title": "Tornado", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado", "summary": "A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. The windstorm is often referred to as a twister, whirlwind or cyclone, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which, from an observer looking down toward the surface of the earth, winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles." }, { "page": "Tropical_cyclone", "title": "Tropical cyclone", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Hurricane_Isabel_from_ISS.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hurricane_Isabel_from_ISS.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone", "summary": "A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain or squalls. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names, including hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean; in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean, comparable storms are referred to simply as \"tropical cyclones\" or \"severe cyclonic storms\"." }, { "page": "Wind", "title": "Wind", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Cherry_tree_moving_in_the_wind_1.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cherry_tree_moving_in_the_wind_1.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind", "summary": "Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn. Winds have various aspects: velocity ; the density of the gas involved; energy content or wind energy. The wind is also an important means of transportation for seeds and small birds; with time things can travel thousands of miles in the wind." }, { "page": "Geology", "title": "Geology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/1875_Dumont's_geological_map_of_Europe.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1875_Dumont's_geological_map_of_Europe.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology", "summary": "Geology is an Earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science." }, { "page": "Earthquake", "title": "Earthquake", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake", "summary": "An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air, and wreak destruction across entire cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity, of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The word tremor is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling." }, { "page": "Erosion", "title": "Erosion", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Eroding_rill_in_field_in_eastern_Germany.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Eroding_rill_in_field_in_eastern_Germany.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion", "summary": "In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, animals, and humans. In accordance with these agents, erosion is sometimes divided into water erosion, glacial erosion, snow erosion, wind (aeolic) erosion, zoogenic erosion, and anthropogenic erosion. The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent, followed by the flow away of that solution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres." }, { "page": "Mineral", "title": "Mineral", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral", "summary": "In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure, that occurs naturally in pure form.." }, { "page": "Plate_tectonics", "title": "Plate tectonics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/4167px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/4167px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics", "summary": "Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s." }, { "page": "Rock_(geology)", "title": "Rock (geology)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Grand_Canyon.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Grand_Canyon.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)", "summary": "A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition and the way in which it is formed. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust." }, { "page": "Soil", "title": "Soil", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Estructura-suelo.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Estructura-suelo.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil", "summary": "Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth's body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:as a medium for plant growth\nas a means of water storage, supply and purification\nas a modifier of Earth's atmosphere\nas a habitat for organisms" }, { "page": "Volcano", "title": "Volcano", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Erupci%C3%B3n_en_el_volc%C3%A1n_Sabancaya%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Erupci%C3%B3n_en_el_volc%C3%A1n_Sabancaya%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano", "summary": "A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface." } ] }, "Technology": { "General": [ { "page": "Technology", "title": "Technology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology", "summary": "Technology is the sum of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in machines to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings. Systems applying technology by taking an input, changing it according to the system's use, and then producing an outcome are referred to as technology systems or technological systems." }, { "page": "Engineering", "title": "Engineering", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering", "summary": "Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering." }, { "page": "Civil_engineering", "title": "Civil engineering", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Viaduct_in_Puxi%2C_Shanghai.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Viaduct_in_Puxi%2C_Shanghai.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering", "summary": "Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewerage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways." }, { "page": "Mechanical_engineering", "title": "Mechanical engineering", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Volkswagen_W16.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Volkswagen_W16.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering", "summary": "Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with materials science to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches." } ], "Energy": [ { "page": "Electricity", "title": "Electricity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Lightning3.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lightning3.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity", "summary": "Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwell's equations. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others." }, { "page": "Electric_battery", "title": "Electric battery", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Batteries.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Batteries.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery", "summary": "A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term \"battery\" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell." }, { "page": "Fire", "title": "Fire", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Large_bonfire.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Large_bonfire.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire", "summary": "Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.\nFire is hot because the conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen, O2, to the stronger bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy (418 kJ per 32 g of O2); the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different." }, { "page": "Explosive", "title": "Explosive", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/17._%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8.webm/1920px--17._%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8.webm.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1920px--17._%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8.webm.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive", "summary": "An explosive is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture containing at least two substances." }, { "page": "Gunpowder", "title": "Gunpowder", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Black_Powder_Close_Up.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Black_Powder_Close_Up.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder", "summary": "Gunpowder, also known as the retronym black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur (S), charcoal (C), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3). The sulfur and charcoal act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Because of its incendiary properties and the amount of heat and gas volume that it generates, gunpowder has been widely used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rocketry, and pyrotechnics, including use as a blasting agent for explosives in quarrying, mining, and road building." }, { "page": "Fossil_fuel", "title": "Fossil fuel", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Coal.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Coal.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel", "summary": "A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient photosynthesis that release energy in combustion.\nSuch organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically have an age of millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years.\nFossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Peat is also sometimes considered a fossil fuel.\nCommonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane.\nFossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-to-hydrogen ratios, to liquids, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.\nMethane can be found in hydrocarbon fields alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates." }, { "page": "Coal", "title": "Coal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Coal_bituminous.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Coal_bituminous.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal", "summary": "Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements; chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.\nCoal is formed when dead plant matter decays into peat and is converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years. Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands—called coal forests—that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian times." }, { "page": "Natural_gas", "title": "Natural gas", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Global_Gas_trade_both_LNG_and_Pipeline.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Global_Gas_trade_both_LNG_and_Pipeline.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas", "summary": "Natural gas, is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium. It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fossil fuel." }, { "page": "Petroleum", "title": "Petroleum", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Petroleum_sample.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Petroleum_sample.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum", "summary": "Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface. It is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a fractionating column." }, { "page": "Gasoline", "title": "Gasoline", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline", "summary": "Gasoline, or petrol is a clear petroleum-derived flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. On average, a 160-liter (42-U.S.-gallon) barrel of crude oil can yield up to about 72 liters of gasoline after processing in an oil refinery, depending on the crude oil assay and on what other refined products are also extracted.\nThe characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating, which is produced in several grades. Once widely used to increase octane rating, tetraethyl lead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas. Other chemicals are frequently added to gasoline to improve chemical stability and performance characteristics, control corrosiveness and provide fuel system cleaning. Gasoline may contain oxygen-containing chemicals such as ethanol, MTBE or ETBE to improve combustion." }, { "page": "Nuclear_power", "title": "Nuclear power", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power", "summary": "Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Generating electricity from fusion power remains at the focus of international research. This article mostly deals with nuclear fission power for electricity generation." }, { "page": "Renewable_energy", "title": "Renewable energy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy", "summary": "Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services." }, { "page": "Hydropower", "title": "Hydropower", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower", "summary": "Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling or fast-running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills. A trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance." }, { "page": "Solar_energy", "title": "Solar energy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Neapolitan_Sunset.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Neapolitan_Sunset.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy", "summary": "Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis." }, { "page": "Wind_power", "title": "Wind power", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang%2C_China.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang%2C_China.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power", "summary": "Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide the mechanical power through wind turbines to turn electric generators and traditionally to do other work, like milling or pumping. Wind power is a sustainable and renewable energy, and has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels." } ], "Food and health": [ { "page": "Animal_husbandry", "title": "Animal husbandry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Cattle_Feedlot_near_Rocky_Ford%2C_CO_IMG_5651-2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cattle_Feedlot_near_Rocky_Ford%2C_CO_IMG_5651-2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry", "summary": "Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, antedating farming of the first crops. By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were being raised on farms." }, { "page": "Domestication", "title": "Domestication", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Backing_sheep_at_sheepdog_competition.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Backing_sheep_at_sheepdog_competition.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication", "summary": "Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group. \nThe domestication of plants and animals was a major cultural innovation ranked in importance with the conquest of fire, the manufacturing of tools, and the development of verbal language." }, { "page": "Biotechnology", "title": "Biotechnology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Insulincrystals.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Insulincrystals.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology", "summary": "Biotechnology is a broad area of biology, involving the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products. Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with related scientific fields. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences, such as genomics, recombinant gene techniques, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests. The term \"Biotechnology\" was first used by \"Karl Ereky\" in 1919, meaning the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms." }, { "page": "Genetic_engineering", "title": "Genetic engineering", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Genetic_engineering_logo.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Genetic_engineering_logo.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering", "summary": "Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or \"knock out\", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome." }, { "page": "Fertilizer", "title": "Fertilizer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer", "summary": "A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced." }, { "page": "Food_preservation", "title": "Food preservation", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_preservation", "summary": "\nFood preservation prevents the growth of microorganisms, or other microorganisms, and slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation." }, { "page": "Garden", "title": "Garden", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Autumn_Colours_-_Stourhead_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1044997.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Autumn_Colours_-_Stourhead_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1044997.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden", "summary": "\n\nA garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, or enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature, as an ideal setting for social or solitary human life. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is control. The garden can incorporate both natural and man-made materials." }, { "page": "Medical_imaging", "title": "Medical imaging", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/RupturedAAA.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/RupturedAAA.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaging", "summary": "Medical imaging is the technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology). Medical imaging seeks to reveal internal structures hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat disease. Medical imaging also establishes a database of normal anatomy and physiology to make it possible to identify abnormalities. Although imaging of removed organs and tissues can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are usually considered part of pathology instead of medical imaging." }, { "page": "Refrigeration", "title": "Refrigeration", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Kuehlregal_USA.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kuehlregal_USA.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigeration", "summary": "The term refrigeration means cooling a space, substance or system to lower and/or maintain its temperature below the ambient one. In other words, refrigeration is artificial (human-made) cooling. Energy in the form of heat is removed from a low-temperature reservoir and transferred to a high-temperature reservoir. The work of energy transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units." }, { "page": "Stove", "title": "Stove", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Strassburg_5923.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Strassburg_5923.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove", "summary": "A stove is a device in which fuel is burned to heat either the space in which the stove is situated, or items placed on the heated stove or inside it in an oven." } ], "Weapons": [ { "page": "Weapon", "title": "Weapon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Dangerous_weapons_seized_from_holiday_flights_at_Manchester_Airport.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Dangerous_weapons_seized_from_holiday_flights_at_Manchester_Airport.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon", "summary": "A weapon, arm or armament is any implement or device that can be used with intent to inflict damage or harm. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, self-defense, and warfare. In broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything used to gain a tactical, strategic, material or mental advantage over an adversary or enemy target." }, { "page": "Armour", "title": "Armour", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour", "summary": "Armour or armor is a protective covering that is used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual or vehicle by direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or activity. Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships and armoured fighting vehicles." }, { "page": "Bow_and_arrow", "title": "Bow and arrow", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Hun_bow.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Hun_bow.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_and_arrow", "summary": "The bow and arrow is a ranged weapon system consisting of an elastic launching device (bow) and long-shafted projectiles (arrows)." }, { "page": "Firearm", "title": "Firearm", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/US_Navy_100714-N-4965F-174_Chief_Mass_Communication_Specialist_Paula_Ludwick%2C_assigned_to_Fleet_Combat_Camera_Group_Pacific%2C_shoots_at_a_target_during_a_Navy_Rifle_Qualification_Course.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/US_Navy_100714-N-4965F-174_Chief_Mass_Communication_Specialist_Paula_Ludwick%2C_assigned_to_Fleet_Combat_Camera_Group_Pacific%2C_shoots_at_a_target_during_a_Navy_Rifle_Qualification_Course.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm", "summary": "A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries." }, { "page": "Knife", "title": "Knife", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Damascus_Bowie.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Damascus_Bowie.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knife", "summary": "A knife is a tool with a cutting edge or blade often attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. Originally made of wood, bone, and stone, over the centuries, in step with improvements in both metallurgy and manufacturing, knife blades have been made from copper, bronze, iron, steel, ceramic, and titanium. Most modern knives have either fixed or folding blades; blade patterns and styles vary by maker and country of origin." }, { "page": "Nuclear_weapon", "title": "Nuclear weapon", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Little_boy.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon", "summary": "A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or from a combination of fission and fusion reactions. Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test of a fission (\"atomic\") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 tons of TNT (84 TJ). The first thermonuclear (\"hydrogen\") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had yields between 10 tons TNT and 50 megatons for the Tsar Bomba. A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 million tons of TNT (5.0 PJ). A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy." } ], "Tools and machinery": [ { "page": "Tool", "title": "Tool", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Agricultural_tools_at_show.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Agricultural_tools_at_show.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool", "summary": "A tool is an object used to extend the ability of an individual to modify features of the surrounding environment. Although many animals use simple tools, only human beings, whose use of stone tools dates back hundreds of millennia, have been observed using tools to make other tools. The set of tools required to perform different tasks that are part of the same activity is called gear or equipment." }, { "page": "Simple_machine", "title": "Simple machine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machine", "summary": "A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general, they can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage to multiply force. Usually the term refers to the six classical simple machines that were defined by Renaissance scientists:Lever\nWheel and axle\nPulley\nInclined plane\nWedge\nScrew" }, { "page": "Wheel", "title": "Wheel", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Ljubljana_Marshes_Wheel_with_axle_%28oldest_wooden_wheel_yet_discovered%29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Ljubljana_Marshes_Wheel_with_axle_%28oldest_wooden_wheel_yet_discovered%29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel", "summary": "In its primitive form, a wheel is a circular block of a hard and durable material at whose center has been bored a hole through which is placed an axle bearing about which the wheel rotates when torque is applied to the wheel about its axis. The wheel and axle assembly can be considered one of the six simple machines. When placed vertically under a load-bearing platform or case, the wheel turning on the horizontal axle makes it possible to transport heavy loads. This arrangement is the main topic of this article, but there are many other applications of a wheel addressed in the corresponding articles: when placed horizontally, the wheel turning on its vertical axle provides the spinning motion used to shape materials ; when mounted on a column connected to a rudder or to the steering mechanism of a wheeled vehicle, it can be used to control the direction of a vessel or vehicle ; when connected to a crank or engine, a wheel can store, release, or transmit energy. A wheel and axle with force applied to create torque at one radius can translate this to a different force at a different radius, also with a different linear velocity." }, { "page": "Engine", "title": "Engine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine", "summary": "An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines, like the internal combustion engine, burn a fuel to create heat which is then used to do work. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air, and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and ultimately motion." }, { "page": "Electric_motor", "title": "Electric motor", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Electric_motor.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Electric_motor.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor", "summary": "An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed flow of power, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy." }, { "page": "Internal_combustion_engine", "title": "Internal combustion engine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Four_stroke_engine_diagram.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Four_stroke_engine_diagram.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine", "summary": "An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful work." }, { "page": "Jet_engine", "title": "Jet engine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/F100_F-15_engine.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/F100_F-15_engine.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine", "summary": "A jet engine is a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion. While this broad definition can include rocket, water jet, and hybrid propulsion, the term jet engine typically refers to an airbreathing jet engine such as a turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, or pulse jet. In general, jet engines are internal combustion engines." }, { "page": "Steam_engine", "title": "Steam engine", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/JamesWattEngine.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/JamesWattEngine.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine", "summary": "A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force is transformed, by a connecting rod and flywheel, into rotational force for work. The term \"steam engine\" is generally applied only to reciprocating engines as just described, not to the steam turbine." }, { "page": "Robotics", "title": "Robotics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics", "summary": "Robotics is an interdisciplinary research area at the interface of computer science and engineering. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives and keep everyone safe. Robotics draws on the achievement of information engineering, computer engineering, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering and others." } ], "Media and communication": [ { "page": "Printing", "title": "Printing", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Collage_of_printing.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Collage_of_printing.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing", "summary": "Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabonidus. The earliest known form of printing as applied to paper was woodblock printing, which appeared in China before 220 AD. Later developments in printing technology include the movable type invented by Bi Sheng around 1040 AD and the printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. The technology of printing played a key role in the development of the Renaissance and the scientific revolution, and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses." }, { "page": "Book", "title": "Book", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Gutenberg_Bible%2C_Lenox_Copy%2C_New_York_Public_Library%2C_2009._Pic_01.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Gutenberg_Bible%2C_Lenox_Copy%2C_New_York_Public_Library%2C_2009._Pic_01.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book", "summary": "A book is a medium for recording information in the form of writing or images, typically composed of many pages bound together and protected by a cover. The technical term for this physical arrangement is codex. In the history of hand-held physical supports for extended written compositions or records, the codex replaces its predecessor, the scroll. A single sheet in a codex is a leaf and each side of a leaf is a page." }, { "page": "Mail", "title": "Mail", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aiga_mail_inverted.svg/114px-Aiga_mail_inverted.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/114px-Aiga_mail_inverted.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail", "summary": "The mail or post is a system for physically transporting postcards, letters, and parcels. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems. Since the mid-19th century, national postal systems have generally been established as a government monopoly, with a fee on the article prepaid. Proof of payment is usually in the form of an adhesive postage stamp, but a postage meter is also used for bulk mailing." }, { "page": "Telecommunication", "title": "Telecommunication", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication", "summary": "Telecommunication is the transmission of information by various types of technologies over wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. It has its origin in the desire of humans for communication over a distance greater than that feasible with the human voice, but with a similar scale of expediency; thus, slow systems are excluded from the field." }, { "page": "Internet", "title": "Internet", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet", "summary": "The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing." }, { "page": "Radio", "title": "Radio", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio", "summary": "Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connected to an antenna which radiates the waves, and received by a radio receiver connected to another antenna. Radio is very widely used in modern technology, in radio communication, radar, radio navigation, remote control, remote sensing and other applications." }, { "page": "Telephone", "title": "Telephone", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Alt_Telefon.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Alt_Telefon.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone", "summary": "A telephone is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals that are transmitted via cables and other communication channels to another telephone which reproduces the sound to the receiving user. The term is derived from Greek: τῆλε and φωνή, together meaning distant voice. A common short form of the term is phone, which has been in use since the early 20th century." }, { "page": "Mobile_phone", "title": "Mobile phone", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Mobile_phone_evolution.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mobile_phone_evolution.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone", "summary": "A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, or hand phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications, business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones." }, { "page": "Video", "title": "Video", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Curiosity's_Seven_Minutes_of_Terror.ogv/1280px--Curiosity's_Seven_Minutes_of_Terror.ogv.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/1280px--Curiosity's_Seven_Minutes_of_Terror.ogv.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video", "summary": "Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video was first developed for mechanical television systems, which were quickly replaced by cathode ray tube (CRT) systems which were later replaced by flat panel displays of several types." }, { "page": "Television", "title": "Television", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Cptvdisplay.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Cptvdisplay.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television", "summary": "Television (TV), sometimes shortened to tele or telly, is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television show, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports." } ], "Computing and information technology": [ { "page": "Computer_science", "title": "Computer science", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science", "summary": "Computer science is the study of algorithmic processes and computational machines. As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of computation and information to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software. Computer science addresses any computational problems, especially information processes, such as control, communication, perception, learning, and intelligence." }, { "page": "Computer", "title": "Computer", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer", "summary": "A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. A \"complete\" computer including the hardware, the operating system, and peripheral equipment required and used for \"full\" operation can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster." }, { "page": "Artificial_intelligence", "title": "Artificial intelligence", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence", "summary": "Artificial intelligence (AI), is intelligence demonstrated by machines, unlike the natural intelligence displayed by humans and animals. Leading AI textbooks define the field as the study of \"intelligent agents\": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term \"artificial intelligence\" is often used to describe machines that mimic \"cognitive\" functions that humans associate with the human mind, such as \"learning\" and \"problem solving\"." }, { "page": "Cryptography", "title": "Cryptography", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography", "summary": "Cryptography, or cryptology, is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications." } ], "Electronics": [ { "page": "Electronics", "title": "Electronics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics", "summary": "Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter. It uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification and rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical engineering which uses passive effects such as resistance, capacitance and inductance to control current flow." }, { "page": "Electric_light", "title": "Electric light", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/L%C3%A2mpadas.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/L%C3%A2mpadas.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_light", "summary": "An electric light is a device that produces visible light from electric current. It is the most common form of artificial lighting and is essential to modern society, providing interior lighting for buildings and exterior light for evening and nighttime activities. In technical usage, a replaceable component that produces light from electricity is called a lamp. Lamps are commonly called light bulbs; for example, the incandescent light bulb. Lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which secures the lamp in the socket of a light fixture. The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, two metal pins, two metal caps or a bayonet cap." }, { "page": "Integrated_circuit", "title": "Integrated circuit", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Microchips.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Microchips.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit", "summary": "An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material that is normally silicon. The integration of large numbers of tiny MOS transistors into a small chip results in circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and less expensive than those constructed of discrete electronic components. The IC's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to integrated circuit design has ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size and low cost of ICs." }, { "page": "Semiconductor_device", "title": "Semiconductor device", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device", "summary": "A semiconductor device is an electronic component that relies on the electronic properties of a semiconductor material for its function. Semiconductor devices have replaced vacuum tubes in most applications. They use electrical conduction in the solid state rather than the gaseous state or thermionic emission in a vacuum." } ], "Space": [ { "page": "Rocket", "title": "Rocket", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Soyuz_TMA-9_launch.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket", "summary": "A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket. Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space." }, { "page": "Satellite", "title": "Satellite", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Soyuz_TMA-7_spacecraft2edit1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Soyuz_TMA-7_spacecraft2edit1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite", "summary": "In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object that has been intentionally placed into orbit. These objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth's Moon." }, { "page": "Space_exploration", "title": "Space exploration", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/As17-137-21009.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/As17-137-21009.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration", "summary": "Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While the exploration of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration though is conducted both by unmanned robotic space probes and human spaceflight. Space exploration, like its classical form astronomy, is one of the main sources for space science." }, { "page": "Spaceflight", "title": "Spaceflight", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Sputnik_asm.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceflight", "summary": "Spaceflight is flight into or through outer space and an application of astronautics. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of uncrewed spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous." }, { "page": "Space_station", "title": "Space station", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/STS-135_final_flyaround_of_ISS_1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/STS-135_final_flyaround_of_ISS_1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station", "summary": "A space station, also known as an orbital station or an orbital space station, is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies." } ], "Transportation": [ { "page": "Transport", "title": "Transport", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/BW_Fjord_an_Glameyer_Stack_2007-12-15.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/BW_Fjord_an_Glameyer_Stack_2007-12-15.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport", "summary": "Transport, or transportation, is the movement of humans, animals and goods from one location to another. In other words, the action of transport is defined as a particular movement of an organism or thing from a point A to a point B. Modes of transport include air, land, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations." }, { "page": "Aircraft", "title": "Aircraft", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/MiG-21_Lancer_C_cropped.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/MiG-21_Lancer_C_cropped.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft", "summary": "An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships, gliders, paramotors and hot air balloons." }, { "page": "Bicycle", "title": "Bicycle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Left_side_of_Flying_Pigeon.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Left_side_of_Flying_Pigeon.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle", "summary": "A bicycle, also called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered or motor-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist." }, { "page": "Car", "title": "Car", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/401_Gridlock.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/401_Gridlock.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car", "summary": "A car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transportation. Most definitions of cars say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four tires, and mainly transport people rather than goods." }, { "page": "Rail_transport", "title": "Rail transport", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/World_railway_network.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/World_railway_network.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport", "summary": "Rail transport is a means of transferring passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, which are located on tracks. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface, rail vehicles are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run. Tracks usually consist of steel rails, installed on ties (sleepers) set in ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels, moves. Other variations are also possible, such as slab track. This is where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface." }, { "page": "Ship", "title": "Ship", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Container_ship_Reecon_Whale_on_Black_Sea_near_Constan%C8%9Ba_Romania.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Container_ship_Reecon_Whale_on_Black_Sea_near_Constan%C8%9Ba_Romania.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship", "summary": "A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying goods or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished from boats, based on size, shape, load capacity, and tradition. In the Age of Sail a \"ship\" was a sailing vessel defined by its sail plan of at least three square riged masts and a full bowsprit." } ], "Navigation and timekeeping": [ { "page": "Navigation", "title": "Navigation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Table_of_Geography_and_Hydrography%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Table_of_Geography_and_Hydrography%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation", "summary": "Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, marine navigation, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation." }, { "page": "Compass", "title": "Compass", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Kompas_Sofia.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Kompas_Sofia.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass", "summary": "A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions. Usually, a diagram called a compass rose shows the directions north, south, east, and west on the compass face as abbreviated initials. When the compass is used, the rose can be aligned with the corresponding geographic directions; for example, the \"N\" mark on the rose points northward. Compasses often display markings for angles in degrees in addition to the rose. North corresponds to 0°, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90° degrees, south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show magnetic North azimuths or true North azimuths or bearings, which are commonly stated in this notation. If magnetic declination between the magnetic North and true North at latitude angle and longitude angle is known, then direction of magnetic North also gives direction of true North." }, { "page": "Map", "title": "Map", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/World_Map_1689.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/World_Map_1689.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map", "summary": "A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes." }, { "page": "Radar", "title": "Radar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Radar_antenna.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Radar_antenna.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar", "summary": "Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object(s). Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the object's location and speed." }, { "page": "Calendar", "title": "Calendar", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Calendar_%28part_of_a_set%29_MET_DP-13486-011.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Calendar_%28part_of_a_set%29_MET_DP-13486-011.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar", "summary": "A calendar is a system of organizing days. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months and years. A date is the designation of a single, specific day within such a system. A calendar is also a physical record of such a system. A calendar can also mean a list of planned events, such as a court calendar or a partly or fully chronological list of documents, such as a calendar of wills." }, { "page": "Clock", "title": "Clock", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/07/Face_of_parilament's_clock_tower.jpeg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Face_of_parilament's_clock_tower.jpeg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock", "summary": "A clock is a device used to measure, keep, and indicate time. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units: the day, the lunar month, and the year. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia." } ], "Structures": [ { "page": "Fortification", "title": "Fortification", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle%2C_1935.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle%2C_1935.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortification", "summary": "A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from the Latin fortis (\"strong\") and facere." }, { "page": "Infrastructure", "title": "Infrastructure", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure", "summary": "Infrastructure is the set of fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or other area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications. In general, infrastructure has been defined as \"the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions\"." }, { "page": "Bridge", "title": "Bridge", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/RhB_Ge_4-4_II_Wiesener_Viadukt.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/RhB_Ge_4-4_II_Wiesener_Viadukt.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge", "summary": "A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle, such as a body of water, valley, or road, without closing the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, usually something that is otherwise difficult or impossible to cross. There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it." }, { "page": "Canal", "title": "Canal", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Alter_Strom.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Alter_Strom.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal", "summary": "Canals are waterways channels, or artificial waterways, for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles. They may also help with irrigation. It can be thought of as an artificial version of a river. Canals carries free surface flow under atmospheric pressure." }, { "page": "Dam", "title": "Dam", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Vyrnwy_dam.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Vyrnwy_dam.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam", "summary": "A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC." }, { "page": "Road", "title": "Road", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Evacuated_Highway_401_Color.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Evacuated_Highway_401_Color.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road", "summary": "A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places that has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by foot or by some form of conveyance." } ], "Materials": [ { "page": "Concrete", "title": "Concrete", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Pantheon_dome.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Pantheon_dome.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete", "summary": "Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens (cures) over time. In the past limebased cement binders were often used, such as lime putty, but sometimes with other hydraulic cements, such as a calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to form Portland cement concrete. Many other non-cementitious types of concrete exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder, which is frequently used for road surfaces, and polymer concretes that use polymers as a binder." }, { "page": "Glass", "title": "Glass", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass", "summary": "Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid, that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of the molten form; some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are \"silicate glasses\" based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. Soda-lime glass, containing around 70% silica, accounts for around 90% of manufactured glass. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, although silica-free glasses often have desirable properties for applications in modern communications technology. Some objects, such as drinking glasses and eyeglasses, are so commonly made of silicate-based glass that they are simply called by the name of the material." }, { "page": "Masonry", "title": "Masonry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Mason_at_work.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Mason_at_work.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry", "summary": "Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, and adobe. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can substantially affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer. These are both classified as construction trades." }, { "page": "Metallurgy", "title": "Metallurgy", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Processing_gold.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Processing_gold.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy", "summary": "Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.\nMetallurgy encompasses both the science and the technology of metals. That is, the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers. Metallurgy is distinct from the craft of metalworking. Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to how medicine relies on medical science for technical advancement. A specialist practitioner of metallurgy is known as a Metallurgist." }, { "page": "Natural_rubber", "title": "Natural rubber", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Caoutchouc_naturel.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Caoutchouc_naturel.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber", "summary": "Natural rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, caucho or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Thailand and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers. Types of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers." }, { "page": "Paper", "title": "Paper", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Coloured%2C_textured_craft_card.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Coloured%2C_textured_craft_card.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper", "summary": "Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically and/or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distributed on the surface, followed by pressing and drying. Although paper was originally made in single sheets by hand, almost all is now made on large machines—some making reels 10 metres wide, running at 2,000 metres per minute and up to 600,000 tonnes a year. It is a versatile material with many uses, including printing, packaging, decorating, writing, cleaning, filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, conservation paper, laminated worktops, toilet tissue, currency and security paper and a number of industrial and construction processes." }, { "page": "Plastic", "title": "Plastic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Plastic_household_items.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic", "summary": "Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid objects." }, { "page": "Textile", "title": "Textile", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Karachi_-_Pakistan-market.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Karachi_-_Pakistan-market.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile", "summary": "A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, tatting, felting, or braiding." }, { "page": "Wood", "title": "Wood", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/16_wood_samples.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/16_wood_samples.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood", "summary": "Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber." } ], "Optical": [ { "page": "Camera", "title": "Camera", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/LEI0440_Leica_IIIf_chrom_-_Sn._580566_1951-52-M39_Blitzsynchron_front_view-6531_hf-.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/LEI0440_Leica_IIIf_chrom_-_Sn._580566_1951-52-M39_Blitzsynchron_front_view-6531_hf-.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera", "summary": "A camera is an optical instrument used to record images. At their most basic, cameras are sealed boxes with a small hole that allow light in to capture an image on a light-sensitive surface. Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the light falls onto the light-sensitive surface. Lenses focus the light entering the camera, the size of the aperture can be widened or narrowed to let more or less light into the camera, and a shutter mechanism determines the amount of time the photo-sensitive surface is exposed to the light." }, { "page": "Laser", "title": "Laser", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Lasertechnik06.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Lasertechnik06.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser", "summary": "A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term \"laser\" originated as an acronym for \"light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\". The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow." }, { "page": "Lens", "title": "Lens", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/BiconvexLens.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/BiconvexLens.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens", "summary": "A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually arranged along a common axis. Lenses are made from materials such as glass or plastic, and are ground and polished or molded to a desired shape. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, which refracts light without focusing. Devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses." }, { "page": "Microscope", "title": "Microscope", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope", "summary": "A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using such an instrument. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope." }, { "page": "Telescope", "title": "Telescope", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/100inchHooker.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/100inchHooker.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope", "summary": "A telescope is an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of both to observe distant objects, or various devices used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. The first known practical telescopes were refracting telescopes invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, by using glass lenses. They were used for both terrestrial applications and astronomy." } ] }, "Mathematics": { "Basics": [ { "page": "Mathematics", "title": "Mathematics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Euclid.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Euclid.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics", "summary": "Mathematics includes the study of such topics as quantity, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change. It has no generally accepted definition." }, { "page": "Number", "title": "Number", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/NumberSetinC.svg/600px-NumberSetinC.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/600px-NumberSetinC.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number", "summary": "A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, \"5\" is a numeral that represents the number five. As only a relatively small number of symbols can be memorized, basic numerals are commonly organized in a numeral system, which is an organized way to represent any number. The most common numeral system is the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which allows for the representation of any number using a combination of ten fundamental numeric symbols, called digits. In addition to their use in counting and measuring, numerals are often used for labels, for ordering, and for codes. In common usage, a numeral is not clearly distinguished from the number that it represents." }, { "page": "Real_number", "title": "Real number", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Latex_real_numbers.svg/343px-Latex_real_numbers.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/343px-Latex_real_numbers.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number", "summary": "In mathematics, a real number is a value of a continuous quantity that can represent a distance along a line. The adjective real in this context was introduced in the 17th century by René Descartes, who distinguished between real and imaginary roots of polynomials. The real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as the integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers, such as √2. Included within the irrationals are the transcendental numbers, such as π (3.14159265...). In addition to measuring distance, real numbers can be used to measure quantities such as time, mass, energy, velocity, and many more. The set of real numbers is denoted using the symbol R or ." }, { "page": "E_(mathematical_constant)", "title": "E (mathematical constant)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Hyperbola_E.svg/609px-Hyperbola_E.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/609px-Hyperbola_E.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)", "summary": "The number e, known as Euler's number, is a mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.71828, and can be characterized in many ways. It is the base of the natural logarithm. It is the limit of (1 + 1/n)n as n approaches infinity, an expression that arises in the study of compound interest. It can also be calculated as the sum of the infinite series" }, { "page": "Pi", "title": "Pi", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi", "summary": "The number π is a mathematical constant. It is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, and it also has various equivalent definitions. It appears in many formulas in all areas of mathematics and physics. It is approximately equal to 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter \"π\" since the mid-18th century, and is spelled out as \"pi\". It is also referred to as Archimedes' constant." }, { "page": "Fraction", "title": "Fraction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Cake_quarters.svg/504px-Cake_quarters.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/504px-Cake_quarters.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction", "summary": "A fraction represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters. A common, vulgar, or simple fraction consists of a numerator displayed above a line, and a non-zero denominator, displayed below that line. Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals." }, { "page": "Integer", "title": "Integer", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Cyclic_group.svg/443px-Cyclic_group.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/443px-Cyclic_group.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer", "summary": "An integer is colloquially defined as a number that can be written without a fractional component. For example, 21, 4, 0, and −2048 are integers, while 9.75, 5+1/2, and √2 are not." }, { "page": "0", "title": "0", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0", "summary": "0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter \"O\"—oh or o. Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip.\nOught and aught, as well as cipher, have also been used historically." }, { "page": "Natural_number", "title": "Natural number", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Three_apples%281%29.svg/278px-Three_apples%281%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/278px-Three_apples%281%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number", "summary": "In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting and ordering. In common mathematical terminology, words colloquially used for counting are \"cardinal numbers\", and words used for ordering are \"ordinal numbers\". The natural numbers can, at times, appear as a convenient set of codes ; that is, as what linguists call nominal numbers, forgoing many or all of the properties of being a number in a mathematical sense. The set of natural numbers is often denoted by the symbol ." }, { "page": "Complex_number", "title": "Complex number", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Complex_number_illustration.svg/183px-Complex_number_illustration.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/183px-Complex_number_illustration.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number", "summary": "A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers, and i represents the imaginary unit, satisfying the equation i2 = −1. Because no real number satisfies this equation, i is called an imaginary number. For the complex number a + bi, a is called the real part, and b is called the imaginary part. The set of complex numbers is denoted using the symbol . Despite the historical nomenclature \"imaginary\", complex numbers are regarded in the mathematical sciences as just as \"real\" as the real numbers, and are fundamental in many aspects of the scientific description of the natural world." }, { "page": "Number_theory", "title": "Number theory", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Spirale_Ulam_150.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Spirale_Ulam_150.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory", "summary": "Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and integer-valued functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) said, \"Mathematics is the queen of the sciences—and number theory is the queen of mathematics.\" Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of mathematical objects made out of integers or defined as generalizations of the integers." }, { "page": "Prime_number", "title": "Prime number", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Primes-vs-composites.svg/468px-Primes-vs-composites.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/468px-Primes-vs-composites.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number", "summary": "A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, 1 × 5 or 5 × 1, involve 5 itself.\nHowever, 4 is composite because it is a product in which both numbers are smaller than 4. Primes are central in number theory because of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every natural number greater than 1 is either a prime itself or can be factorized as a product of primes that is unique up to their order." } ], "Arithmetic": [ { "page": "Arithmetic", "title": "Arithmetic", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Tables_generales_aritmetique_MG_2108.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tables_generales_aritmetique_MG_2108.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic", "summary": "Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics that consists of the study of numbers, especially the properties of the traditional operations on them—addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation and extraction of roots. Arithmetic is an elementary part of number theory, and number theory is considered to be one of the top-level divisions of modern mathematics, along with algebra, geometry, and analysis. The terms arithmetic and higher arithmetic were used until the beginning of the 20th century as synonyms for number theory, and are sometimes still used to refer to a wider part of number theory." }, { "page": "Addition", "title": "Addition", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Addition01.svg/185px-Addition01.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/185px-Addition01.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition", "summary": "Addition is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division. The addition of two whole numbers results in the total amount or sum of those values combined. The example in the adjacent picture shows a combination of three apples and two apples, making a total of five apples. This observation is equivalent to the mathematical expression \"3 + 2 = 5\"." }, { "page": "Subtraction", "title": "Subtraction", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Subtraction01.svg/282px-Subtraction01.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/282px-Subtraction01.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtraction", "summary": "Subtraction is an arithmetic operation that represents the operation of removing objects from a collection. The result of a subtraction is called a difference. Subtraction is signified by the minus sign, −. For example, in the adjacent picture, there are 5 − 2 apples—meaning 5 apples with 2 taken away, resulting in a total of 3 apples. Therefore, the difference of 5 and 2 is 3, that is, 5 − 2 = 3. While primarily associated with natural numbers in arithmetic, subtraction can also represent removing or decreasing physical and abstract quantities using different kinds of objects including negative numbers, fractions, irrational numbers, vectors, decimals, functions, and matrices." }, { "page": "Multiplication", "title": "Multiplication", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Multiply_4_bags_3_marbles.svg/615px-Multiply_4_bags_3_marbles.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/615px-Multiply_4_bags_3_marbles.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication", "summary": "Multiplication is one of the four elementary mathematical operations of arithmetic, with the other ones being addition, subtraction and division. The result of a multiplication operation is called a product." }, { "page": "Division_(mathematics)", "title": "Division (mathematics)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Divide20by4.svg/462px-Divide20by4.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/462px-Divide20by4.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)", "summary": "Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the ways that numbers are combined to make new numbers. The other operations are addition, subtraction, and multiplication. The division sign ÷, a symbol consisting of a short horizontal line with a dot above and another dot below, is often used to indicate mathematical division. This usage, though widespread in anglophone countries, is neither universal nor recommended: the ISO 80000-2 standard for mathematical notation recommends only the solidus / or fraction bar for division, or the colon for ratios; it says that this symbol \"should not be used\" for division." }, { "page": "Exponentiation", "title": "Exponentiation", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Expo02.svg/500px-Expo02.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/500px-Expo02.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation", "summary": "Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving two numbers, the base b and the exponent or power n, and pronounced as \"b raised to the power of n\". When n is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, bn is the product of multiplying n bases:" }, { "page": "Logarithm", "title": "Logarithm", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Logarithm_plots.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Logarithm_plots.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm", "summary": "In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse function to exponentiation. That means the logarithm of a given number x is the exponent to which another fixed number, the base b, must be raised, to produce that number x. In the simplest case, the logarithm counts the number of occurrences of the same factor in repeated multiplication; e.g., since 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103, the \"logarithm base 10\" of 1000 is 3, or log10(1000) = 3. The logarithm of x to base b is denoted as logb(x), or without parentheses, logb x, or even without the explicit base, log x, when no confusion is possible, or when the base does not matter such as in big O notation." }, { "page": "Nth_root", "title": "Nth root", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root", "summary": "In mathematics, an nth root of a number x, where n is usually assumed to be a positive integer, is a number r which, when raised to the power n yields x:" } ], "Geometry": [ { "page": "Geometry", "title": "Geometry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg/815px-Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/815px-Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry", "summary": "Geometry is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space that are related with distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer." }, { "page": "Angle", "title": "Angle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Two_rays_and_one_vertex.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Two_rays_and_one_vertex.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle", "summary": "In Euclidean geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle.\nAngles formed by two rays lie in the plane that contains the rays. Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes. These are called dihedral angles. Two intersecting curves define also an angle, which is the angle of the tangents at the intersection point. For example, the spherical angle formed by two great circles on a sphere equals the dihedral angle between the planes containing the great circles." }, { "page": "Trigonometry", "title": "Trigonometry", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Sinus_und_Kosinus_am_Einheitskreis_1.svg/410px-Sinus_und_Kosinus_am_Einheitskreis_1.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/410px-Sinus_und_Kosinus_am_Einheitskreis_1.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry", "summary": "Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between side lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies. The Greeks focused on the calculation of chords, while mathematicians in India created the earliest-known tables of values for trigonometric ratios such as sine." }, { "page": "Area", "title": "Area", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Area.svg/428px-Area.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/428px-Area.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area", "summary": "Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape or planar lamina, in the plane. Surface area is its analog on the two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional object. Area can be understood as the amount of material with a given thickness that would be necessary to fashion a model of the shape, or the amount of paint necessary to cover the surface with a single coat. It is the two-dimensional analog of the length of a curve or the volume of a solid." }, { "page": "Volume", "title": "Volume", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Simple_Measuring_Cup.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Simple_Measuring_Cup.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume", "summary": "Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by a closed surface, for example, the space that a substance or shape occupies or contains. Volume is often quantified numerically using the SI derived unit, the cubic metre. The volume of a container is generally understood to be the capacity of the container; i. e., the amount of fluid that the container could hold, rather than the amount of space the container itself displaces.\nThree dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes. Volumes of some simple shapes, such as regular, straight-edged, and circular shapes can be easily calculated using arithmetic formulas. Volumes of complicated shapes can be calculated with integral calculus if a formula exists for the shape's boundary. One-dimensional figures and two-dimensional shapes are assigned zero volume in the three-dimensional space." }, { "page": "Coordinate_system", "title": "Coordinate system", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/3D_Spherical.svg/558px-3D_Spherical.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/558px-3D_Spherical.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system", "summary": "In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space. The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in \"the x-coordinate\". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry." }, { "page": "Dimension", "title": "Dimension", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg/815px-Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/815px-Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension", "summary": "In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it – for example, the point at 5 on a number line. A surface such as a plane or the surface of a cylinder or sphere has a dimension of two (2D) because two coordinates are needed to specify a point on it – for example, both a latitude and longitude are required to locate a point on the surface of a sphere. The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional (3D) because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces." }, { "page": "Line_(geometry)", "title": "Line (geometry)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FuncionLineal01.svg/512px-FuncionLineal01.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-FuncionLineal01.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)", "summary": "In geometry, the notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, which are often described in terms of two points or referred to using a single letter." }, { "page": "Plane_(geometry)", "title": "Plane (geometry)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Plane_equation_qtl3.svg/470px-Plane_equation_qtl3.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/470px-Plane_equation_qtl3.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)", "summary": "In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. A plane is the two-dimensional analogue of a point, a line and three-dimensional space. Planes can arise as subspaces of some higher-dimensional space, as with a room's walls extended infinitely far, or they may enjoy an independent existence in their own right, as in the setting of Euclidean geometry." }, { "page": "Shape", "title": "Shape", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Plastic_vormenstoof_of_puzzelbal_van_%E2%80%9CTupperware_Toy%E2%80%9D%2C_objectnr_83212.JPG", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Plastic_vormenstoof_of_puzzelbal_van_%E2%80%9CTupperware_Toy%E2%80%9D%2C_objectnr_83212.JPG", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape", "summary": "A shape is the form of an object or its external boundary, outline, or external surface, as opposed to other properties such as color, texture or material type." }, { "page": "Conic_section", "title": "Conic section", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Conic_sections_with_plane.svg/600px-Conic_sections_with_plane.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/600px-Conic_sections_with_plane.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_section", "summary": "In mathematics, a conic section is a curve obtained as the intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic section are the hyperbola, the parabola, and the ellipse; the circle is a special case of the ellipse, though historically it was sometimes called a fourth type. The ancient Greek mathematicians studied conic sections, culminating around 200 BC with Apollonius of Perga's systematic work on their properties." }, { "page": "Circle", "title": "Circle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Circle-withsegments.svg/612px-Circle-withsegments.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/612px-Circle-withsegments.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle", "summary": "A circle is a shape consisting of all points in a plane that are a given distance from a given point, the centre; equivalently it is the curve traced out by a point that moves in a plane so that its distance from a given point is constant. The distance between any point of the circle and the centre is called the radius. This article is about circles in Euclidean geometry, and, in particular, the Euclidean plane, except where otherwise noted." }, { "page": "Polygon", "title": "Polygon", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon", "summary": "In geometry, a polygon is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed polygonal chain or polygonal circuit. The solid plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two together, may be called a polygon." }, { "page": "Triangle", "title": "Triangle", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Regular_polygon_3_annotated.svg/503px-Regular_polygon_3_annotated.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/503px-Regular_polygon_3_annotated.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle", "summary": "A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted ." }, { "page": "Polyhedron", "title": "Polyhedron", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Tetrahedron.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Tetrahedron.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron", "summary": "In geometry, a polyhedron is a three-dimensional shape with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices. The word polyhedron comes from the Classical Greek πολύεδρον, as poly- + -hedron." }, { "page": "Sphere", "title": "Sphere", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Sphere_wireframe_10deg_6r.svg/800px-Sphere_wireframe_10deg_6r.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/800px-Sphere_wireframe_10deg_6r.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere", "summary": "A sphere is a geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a ball." } ], "Algebra": [ { "page": "Algebra", "title": "Algebra", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra", "summary": "Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra; the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians." }, { "page": "Equation", "title": "Equation", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation", "summary": "In mathematics, an equation is a statement that asserts the equality of two expressions, which are connected by the equals sign \"=\". The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any equality is an equation." }, { "page": "Variable_(mathematics)", "title": "Variable (mathematics)", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)", "summary": "In mathematics, a variable is a symbol which functions as a placeholder for varying expression or quantities, and is often used to represent an arbitrary element of a set. In addition to numbers, variables are commonly used to represent vectors, matrices and functions." } ], "Analysis": [ { "page": "Mathematical_analysis", "title": "Mathematical analysis", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Attracteur_%C3%A9trange_de_Lorenz.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis", "summary": "Mathematical analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with limits\nand related theories, such as differentiation, integration, measure, infinite series, and analytic functions." }, { "page": "Calculus", "title": "Calculus", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus", "summary": "Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or \"the calculus of infinitesimals\", is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations." }, { "page": "Function_(mathematics)", "title": "Function (mathematics)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Function_machine2.svg/191px-Function_machine2.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/191px-Function_machine2.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)", "summary": "In mathematics, a function is a binary relation between two sets that associates every element of the first set to exactly one element of the second set. Typical examples are functions from integers to integers, or from the real numbers to real numbers." }, { "page": "Infinity", "title": "Infinity", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Infinite.svg/330px-Infinite.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/330px-Infinite.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity", "summary": "Infinity represents something that is boundless or endless, or else something that is larger than any real or natural number. It is often denoted by the infinity symbol ∞." }, { "page": "Limit_(mathematics)", "title": "Limit (mathematics)", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_(mathematics)", "summary": "In mathematics, a limit is the value that a function \"approaches\" as the input \"approaches\" some value. Limits are essential to calculus and mathematical analysis, and are used to define continuity, derivatives, and integrals." }, { "page": "Series_(mathematics)", "title": "Series (mathematics)", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(mathematics)", "summary": "In mathematics, a series is, roughly speaking, a description of the operation of adding infinitely many quantities, one after the other, to a given starting quantity. The study of series is a major part of calculus and its generalization, mathematical analysis. Series are used in most areas of mathematics, even for studying finite structures through generating functions. In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics, computer science, statistics and finance." } ], "Probability and statistics": [ { "page": "Probability", "title": "Probability", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dice_Distribution_%28bar%29.svg/512px-Dice_Distribution_%28bar%29.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/512px-Dice_Distribution_%28bar%29.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability", "summary": "Probability is the branch of mathematics concerning numerical descriptions of how likely an event is to occur, or how likely it is that a proposition is true. The probability of an event is a number between 0 and 1, where, roughly speaking, 0 indicates impossibility of the event and 1 indicates certainty. The higher the probability of an event, the more likely it is that the event will occur. A simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the coin is fair, the two outcomes are both equally probable; the probability of \"heads\" equals the probability of \"tails\"; and since no other outcomes are possible, the probability of either \"heads\" or \"tails\" is 1/2." }, { "page": "Statistics", "title": "Statistics", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Standard_Normal_Distribution.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Standard_Normal_Distribution.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics", "summary": "Statistics is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people or objects such as \"all people living in a country\" or \"every atom composing a crystal\". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. See glossary of probability and statistics." } ], "Other": [ { "page": "Algorithm", "title": "Algorithm", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Diagram_for_the_computation_of_Bernoulli_numbers.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/Diagram_for_the_computation_of_Bernoulli_numbers.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm", "summary": "In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a finite sequence of well-defined, computer-implementable instructions, typically to solve a class of problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are always unambiguous and are used as specifications for performing calculations, data processing, automated reasoning, and other tasks." }, { "page": "Combinatorics", "title": "Combinatorics", "image": "", "safe_image": "", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics", "summary": "Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics, from evolutionary biology to computer science, etc." }, { "page": "Mathematical_proof", "title": "Mathematical proof", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/P._Oxy._I_29.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof", "summary": "A mathematical proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement, showing that the stated assumptions logically guarantee the conclusion. The argument may use other previously established statements, such as theorems; but every proof can, in principle, be constructed using only certain basic or original assumptions known as axioms, along with the accepted rules of inference. Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning which establish logical certainty, to be distinguished from empirical arguments or non-exhaustive inductive reasoning which establish \"reasonable expectation\". Presenting many cases in which the statement holds is not enough for a proof, which must demonstrate that the statement is true in all possible cases. An unproven proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture, or a hypothesis if frequently used as an assumption for further mathematical work." }, { "page": "Set_(mathematics)", "title": "Set (mathematics)", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Example_of_a_set.svg/458px-Example_of_a_set.svg.png", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/458px-Example_of_a_set.svg.png", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)", "summary": "In mathematics, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. The arrangement of the objects in the set does not matter. A set may be denoted by placing its objects between a pair of curly braces. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately; when considered collectively, they form a single set of size three, written as {2, 4, 6}, which could also be written as {2, 6, 4}, {4, 2, 6}, {4, 6, 2}, {6, 2, 4} or {6, 4, 2}. Sets can also be denoted using capital roman letters in italic such as , , ." }, { "page": "Topology", "title": "Topology", "image": "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/M%C3%B6bius_strip.jpg", "safe_image": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Redirect/file/M%C3%B6bius_strip.jpg", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology", "summary": "In mathematics, topology is concerned with the properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing." } ] } }